
Class .__ 12 a._L_ 

Book HkL_ 

CopiglitN" : 

COFUOGUT DEPOSIT. 



OUTLINES 



GENERAL HISTORY 



BY 



FRANK MOORE COLBY, M.A. 

ProfeHHor of Economics 
NEW YORK UNIVERSITY 



J^^oc 



NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 




8EP 7189^ 



■/ 



41275 

Copyright, 1899, by 
F. M. COLBY. 



OUT. GEN. HIST. 



rwoooptiEs REceivii^w 






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PREFACE 

The present volume is designed for students who have not 
yet reached the point at which the special historical studies 
should properly begin. For advanced work specialization is 
of course indispensable, and historical " Outlines " are useful 
only in the early stages of the study or for purposes of general 
review. But within this limited sphere their functions are very 
important, since they not only supply the point of view which 
the student who specializes too early in his course is apt to 
neglect, but they aid the memory by affording a convenient 
nucleus for later acquisitions of knowledge. 

In writing them as well as in using them it is necessary to 
remember that they are intended to be suggestive and not 
exhaustive, and that compression means the omission of some 
topics that seem equal in importance to others which have 
been included. The preparation of such a volume is in fact 
a problem in selection. A fairly complete chronological sum- 
mary can perhaps be comprised within a single volume, but a 
general history which can be read without undue weariness 
and remembered without undue exertion must either overrun 
the space or limit its toj^ics. The present "Outlines" have 
been prepared with this fact in mind, and while the writer 
has attempted to cover as wide a held as possible, he has 
chosen at some points rather to restrict his scope than to give 
a mere catalogue of events. For exampl-e, the history of the 



4 PREFACE 

United States has not been included, because, in the first 
place, it is more generally and more properly treated by itself, 
and, in the second place, so condensed a treatment as the 
limits of space allowed seemed of doubtful value. Again, the 
history of the non- Aryan peoples, especially since the begin- 
ning of the mediaeval period, has not received the attention 
that has been given" to the races to which the leading nations 
of the world belong. As in most other general histories the 
chief object of attention in the cliapters on mediaeval and 
modern history has been the European nations. In treating 
them, an effort has been made to trace their development so 
far as possible in a connected narrative, indicating the causal 
relations of events, for in the study of history nothing aids 
the memory so much as the perception of necessary sequences 
in historical facts. The narration of unrelated details, the 
enumeration of facts for their own sake, whether they lead 
any.where or not, provokes in the student's mind a vague and 
unproductive wonder, which he is better off without; and it is 
to be hoped that the present w^ork contains nothing that does 
not bear on its face the vindication of its usefulness. 

It is thought that the first and most natural question that 
presents itself to a reader's inind is, '-Of what use to me 
personally is the knowledge of this or that particular set of 
facts?" Much of the specialist's learning remains forever 
barred to the general reader merely for the former's unwill- 
ingness or inability to forestall this inquiry. In a brief 
general work the answer should be impressed on every page. 
At least such is the belief of the present writer, and by this 
means, rather than by what is termed pi(;turesque writing or 
by very frequent recourse to the pretty story, this volume 
attempts to hold the reader's interest. Desiring above all 



PREFACE 5 

things to tell a plain tale simply, the writer has tried to 
abstain from the conventionalized historical ornamentation, 
and if those overworked metaphors, those dingy wax flowers 
of rhetoric, have found their way into these pages, they are 
there by accident and in spite of his good intentions. 

As in all shorter works on history, the main value of this 
volume should consist in providing at once a general founda- 
tion for historical knowledge and a stimulus to further read- 
ing. If it does not fall short of these requirements, it will 
have fulfilled the purpose for which it was designed. 

FRANK MOORE COLBY. 

University Heights, 
New York. 



MAPS 



The Ancient World according to Herodotus 
Ancient Oriental Peoples . 
Egypt .... 

Babylonia and Assyria 
Palestine .... 
Greece .... 
Empire of Alexander the Great 
Ancient Italy 
Rome and Vicinity . 
The Roman Empire, 241 i?.c. 
The Roman Empire, 201 b.c. 
The Roman Empire, 44 b.c. 
The Roman Empire, 96 a.d. 
The Roman Empire, oOo a.d. 
Europe in 520 .... 
Empire of Charlemagne, 814 a.i 
Central Europe in 843 
('entral P]urope in 887 

Europe in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuri 
Mediterranean Lands after the Fourth Crusade 
Europe at the Middle of the Fourteenth Century 
The Period of Discovery .... 
Europe at the Time of the Reformation . 
Europe in the Eighteenth Century . 
Europe at the Time of Napoleon 
Europe at the End of tlie Nineteenth Century 

6 



PAGE 
12 

20 
23 
36 
44 
70 
114 
128 
130 
145 
148 
167 
175 
179 
191 
224 
239 
241 
243 
261 
282 
322 
332 
402 
456 
505 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 








PAGE 


I. 


Introduction ^^ 




ANCIENT HISTORY 


II. 


Oriental Peoples 


21 


III. 


Kgypt 




• 


23 


IV. 


Babylonians and Assyrians 






36 


V. 


The Hebrews .... 






43 


VI. 


The Phoenicians .... 






48 


VII. 


China and India .... 






. 54 


VIII. 


The Medes and the Persians 




. 64 




GREECE 









IX. The Prehistoric Age .... 

X. The First Period of Greek History 

XL Sparta 

XII. Athens 

XIII. The Second Period : The Flourishing Era 

XIV. Athens at the Height of her Power . 
XV. The Peloponnesian War 

XVI. The Spartan and Theban Supremacy . 

XVII. The Third Period: The Macedonian Supremacy 

XVlil. Greek Civilization 



71 

77 

79 

84 

90 

99 

101 

108 

110 

118 



ROME 

XIX. The Period of the Kings 

XX. The Period of Patrician Rule 

XXI. The Conquest of Italy 

XXII. Foreign Conquests 

XXIII. The Period of Civil Strife . 

XXIV. The Roman Empire . 

7 



127 
132 
136 
142 
154 
170 



CONTENTS 



XXV. The Teutonic Migrations . . . . . .181 

XXVI. 'J'he Fall of Rome 190 

XXVII. Roman Life and Manners 197 



MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

XXVIII. The New Barbarian Kingdoms 

XXIX. The Kingdom of the Franks . 

XXX. Charlemagne .... 

XXXI. Rise of the Papal Power 

XXXII. Europe under the Later Carolingians 

XXXIII. The Northmen .... 

XXXIV. Rise of the Mohammedan Power . 
XXXV. The Crusades 

XXXVI. Society in the Middle Ages 

XXXVII. The Papal Power . 

XXXVIII. England in the Middle Ages 

XXXIX. France in the Middle Ages 

XL. Germany and Italy 



203 
212 
218 
229 
235 
243 
252 
260 
275 
283 
295 
309 
314 



MODERN HISTORY 



XLI. Introduction 323 

XLII. The Period of Discovery 325 

XLIII. The Rise of Absolute Monarchies .... 333 

XLIV. The Emperor Charles V 341 

XLV. The Period of the Reformation 350 . 

XLVI. The Reformation in Germany . . . . . 352 

XLVII. The Reformation in England ..... 359 

XLVIII. The Reformation in Other European Countries . . 363 

XLIX. Arrest of the Reformation 366 

L. England in the Sixteenth Century . . . . 369 

LL The Revolt of the Netherlands 377 

LII. France in the Sixteenth Century 384 

LIII. The Thirty Years' War 396 

LIV. The Growth of Na'tions. The Ascendency of France . 403 
LV. England in the Seventeenth Century. To the Out- 
break of the Civil War 415 

LVI. Tlie Civil War and the Protectorate .... 422 

LVII. The Restoration 427 

LVIII. The Revolution of 1688 430 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 

LIX, The Rise of Prussia 

LX. Russia and Sweden 

LXI. England in tlie Eighteenth Century 

LXII. The French Revolution 

LXIII. France under the Legislative Assembly 

LXIV. France under the National Convention 

LXV. France under the Directory . 

LXVI. France under Napoleon 

LXVII. Europe in the Nineteenth Century — 1815 to 

LXVIII. The Revolution of 1830 and its Effects 

LXIX. Europe from 1831 to 1851 

LXX. Europe after 1851 .... 

LXXI. The Founding of the German Empire 

LXXII. England in the Nineteenth Century 

LXXIII. Europe since 1871 



1830 



PAGE 

435 
442 
451 

456 
471 
474 
484 
489 
505 
511 
519 
529 
536 
541 
547 



GENERAL HISTORY 

CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

History defined. — History is the record of past events in the 
life of inankind. In detailing these events, however, it con- 
cerns itself with their relation, and seeks to point out the 
connection of cause and effect that exists between them. A 
bare catalogue of unrelated facts, though true in themselves, 
w^ould not make history in the modern sense. There must 
be some definite principle on which the selection of the facts is 
based. This principle is that a fact, in order to have histori- 
cal value, must help to explain what goes before or what 
comes after in the life of a people. 

Kinds of History. — It is clear that the past life of mankind 
may be regarded from different points of view. Thus, if the 
special purpose is to show how men have advanced in knowl- 
edge from age to age, and what influences have quickened their 
minds or changed their modes of thought, the narrative is 
called Intellectual History. If the object is to point out the 
changes which have taken place in men's ideas of right and 
wrong, and to trace the development of moral standards, the 
work is termed a History of Morals. Political History deals 
with the external events in the life of a nation, showing its 
varying relations to other nations and to its own government. 
Constitutional History has to do with changes in the form and 
principles of government, and in the character and administra- 
tion of law ; Economic History, with the past conditions of a 
people in respect to the possession and acquisition of wealth. 

11 



12 



GENERAL HISTORY 



So the particular field to which the narrative is confined de- 
termines how the history is to be classified. It is very difficult, 
however, to keep these departments distinct, as events which 
properly fall within the scope of one department have often a 
very important bearing on those Avhich belong to another, A 
history which gives anything like a complete narrative of past 
events must investigate the facts pertaining to all sides of a 
nation's life. 

Related Branches of Learning. — Correct description and expla- 
nation of past events requires a knowledge of certain classes of 
laws and facts which properly belong to branches of study dis- 
tinct from history and yet closely connected with it. The most 
important of these are Geography, Ethnology, and Philology. 

Geography. — It is evident that unless we knew in what part 
of the world a nation was situated, who its neighbors were, 
and what boundaries it possessed, we could not understand the 

events which make up 



THE ANCIENT WORLD 

ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS 



Vana^ 



its history. AVe should 
have no definite idea 
of the meaning of the 
terms which historians 
employ. Thus the 
France and Germany 
of to-day differ widely 
in extent from the 
countries to which 
these names are ap- 
plied in writing of the 
Middle Ages ; and such terms as ' Burgundy,' ' Lotharingia,' 
and ' the Netherlands,' mean very different things at different 
periods of the history of those countries. Political Geogra- 
phy, therefore, dealing with STiccessive changes in the bound- 
aries of nations and principalities, is indispensable to the 
study of history. 

Again, without a knowledge of the physical features of the 
country in which a nation lives, we cannot understand the 




INTRODUCTION 13 

course of its lii story. The long and irregular coast line of 
Greece, with its numerous bays and harbors, and the subdi- 
vision of the country by mountain ranges throw light upon 
the seafaring tendencies of the Greeks and their lack of politi- 
cal unity. Many similar instances might be given showing 
the intimate relation between physical features and national 
life. Climate, too, is a factor of the greatest importance. 
There are marked differences, both mental and moral, between 
the peoples of hot regions and those living in cold or temper- 
ate climates. Physical Geography, accordingly, as explaining 
national character and conditions, is one of the most effec- 
tive aids to historical knowledge. 

Ethnology. — The science that traces the origin of nations 
and tribes, classifies and groups them, shows the kinship 
between them, and points out their characteristic customs and 
institutions, is termed Ethnology. The historian needs the aid 
of the ethnologist in determining the race and origin of the 
peoples he describes, and in making a correct picture of their 
manners and mode of life at certain periods of their history 
and even before recorded history begins. 

Philology, or the science of language, helps to reveal the 
relationship of races, and aids the ethnologist in his classi- 
fication. It also shows the influence which mutual contact 
has exerted on races, and gives an insight into the effects 
of conquest or fusion : as in the countries of southern Europe, 
where, after the Gothic invasion of the Koman Empire, the 
conquering Goths came to speak a language which was neither 
Latin nor Gothic, but combined certain elements of each ; or 
again in England, wdiere the effects of the Norman Conquest 
can be traced in the resulting language, the simple, homely 
words deviating but slightly from the Anglo-Saxon, , while 
many of the more abstract terms, such as would be more likely 
to be used by the better educated or higher classes, were de- 
rived from the Norman-French spoken by the conquerors. 

Uses of History. — It is a very common saying that we can- 
not understand the present without a knowledge of the past. 



14 



GENERAL HISTORY 



Past events are the signs by which we can in a measure fore- 
cast the future. It is only by the knowledge of the world's 
experience that the repetition of past mistakes can be avoided. 
We should neither value nor retain the benefits we have if we 
knew nothing of the struggle which it cost to obtain them. 
Civilization is a product of slow growth, and must be studied 
in all its stages if we would understand that stage in which 
we live and if we would put forth intelligent efforts for im- 
provement. 

Prehistoric Man. — As the term itself indicates, there was a 
period in the life of mankind when no historical record of 
events was kept. Savages grouped together in a clan or tribe, 
roaming over uncultivated lands, and subsisting by hunting 
or by fishing, have no history in the proper sense of the word. 
History does not begin till civilization begins, till men live 
as members of society, and the fanciful and superstitious tales 
handed down by tradition give place to written records show- 
ing some power of sifting the true from the false. 

Yet in this dark, eporly period the researches of ethnologists 
have brought to light facts of the highest importance. In the 

first place, it is interesting 
to learn that the earliest re- 
mains show no difference in 
physical characteristics be- 
tween prehistoric man and 
the men of the present day. 
In the second place, that 
same law of development 
which is so manifest in the 
history of civilized man ap- 
pears in the prehistoric 
period. Eelics have been 
found showing successive 
stages in the progress toward 
civilizn.ti(m. These stages are termed respectively the Stone 
Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age, from the materials 




Fn^fT Arrowheads, Ax, and 



INTRODUCTION 15 

out of which the primitive man coustruL'ted his implements 
of industry and war. 

Stone Age. — The early part of the Stone Age is marked by 
the absence of any traces of human dwellings. Men lived in 
caves, and subsisted on the lower animals, but did not do- 
mesticate them. Their rude utensils made of stone, neverthe- 
less, often show marks of considerable skill. Later in the 
Stone Age we see signs of a marked advance. Implements 
were more skillfully fashioned ; and men were no longer cave 
dwellers, but lived in huts, some of which, as in the case of 
the lake dwellings in Switzerland, were well adapted for shel- 
ter and protection. There are evidences, too, that the people 
of the later Stone Age cultivated the fields, raising crops of 
wheat and barley. 

Bronze and Iron Ages. — The Bronze Age shows a still greater 
advance in the arts of industry. Implements were made of 
copper, and often wrought into artistic shapes, 
and highly ornamented. In the last stage of the 
prehistoric period man had reached the Iron Age, 
in which implements were made of iron, as in the 
period of civilization. 

It must not be thought that all races passed 
through these three stages at the same time. 
Some had reached the second while others had bronze battle- 
not passed the first. At the present time we ^^ 

find barbarous tribes still living in one of the earlier stages. 
Until comparatively recent times the North American In- 
dians had not emerged from the Stone Age; and there are 
many tribes to-day, for example, the Aleuts (the inhabitants 
of the Aleutian Islands), who remain in that stage. 

Classification of Races. — The division of races has puzzled 
scholars for centuries, and authorities even now disagree in 
points that are essential. The surest principle of classification 
is based on language, but the results must be tested by a 
study of the physical characteristics of the various races. 
According to this method of classification, the races of the 




16 GENERAL HISTORY 

world may be divided as follows : Aryan, Semitic, Hamitii 
Turanian, Negroid. The name Caucasian is generally applie 
to the hrst three divisions, — Aryans, Semites, and Hamites. 

Aryan. — This includes the ancient Hindus (whose languag 
was Sanskrit, the oldest and most similar to the original Arya 
tongue), the Persians, Greeks, Italians, Celts, Teutons, an 
Slavs. Each of these races may in turn be divided into pe( 
pies which differ widely from one another in speech ; yet th 
basis of the various languages is the same, and all are descenc 
ants of one original stock. The theory is that this pareii 
tongue was spoken by the common forefathers of these race 
before successive migrations drew them from their origins 
home ; but where this ancient Aryan race lived is a matter c 
doubt, some scholars placing it in the plains of central Europ 
or on the slopes of the Caucasus, others adhering to the olde 
theory that the cradle of the race was somewhere in Asif 
probably in the region of the Oxus and Jaxartes rivers, nort 
of the Hindu-Kush range of mountains. However this may b( 
it is believed that the original Aryans, before they began t 
scatter, had advanced far beyond the savage state. Thi 
appears from the evidence of language; for such words a 
'God,' 'father,' 'mother,' 'cow,' 'ax,' 'home,' and the name 
of numerous implements of industry, are similar in the var: 
ous languages of their descendants, indicating that befor 
the division took place the original stock must have beei 
acquainted with the ideas or things for which these word 
stand. 

Semitic. — The Semitic race includes the Babylonians, Assyi 
ians, Chaldeans, Syrians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Ethiopians 
and Arabs. The term 'Semitic' is derived from Shem, th 
son of Noah, and was originally applied to those peoples wh^ 
are mentioned in Genesis as descended from Shem ; but ther 
is much difficulty in classifying them, because in the course o 
time, through conquest or intermingling, some peoples not o 
the Semitic race came to speak a Semitic tongue, while, on thi 
other hand, pure-blooded Semites in some cases adopted th 



INTRODUCTION IT 

non-Semitic langnage of their conquerors. The home of the 
original stock was northern Arabia. 

Hamitic. — The Hamitic group has as its principal member 
the Egyptians or Copts ; but, as in the case of the Semites, there 
is confusion in respect to the term, which was originally ap- 
plied to the descendants of Noah's son Ham. By some the 
Ethiopians and Phoenicians are included in the Hamitic group. 

Turanian.— The Turanian race embraces the Finns, Hunga- 
rians, Turks or Tartars, Mongols, and Malays. 

Negroid. — This division includes the African Negroes, the 
Hottentots and Bushmen, the Melanesians, and the Negritos. 

The Aryan Race. — As the object of history is to trace the 
progress of civilization, its chief concern is with those nations 
that have shown ability to advance in culture and enlighten-' 
ment. The leading peoples in the world in this respect belong 
to the Aryan race. The great majority of Europeans and of 
European colonists and their descendants in all parts of the 
world are Aryans. TMie history of Greece and Rome, of France, 
Germany, Austria, Russia, Spain, Italy, the Scandinavian 
countries, the Netherlands, Great Britain, and the United 
States is a record of the doings of Aryan peoples. 

Non-Aryan Races. — In the development of religions, the 
Semites hold the foremost place, for Christianity, Judaism, 
and Mohammedanism each had its rise among them. Nor is 
it to be denied that at certain periods of their history they 
have shown a high degree of civilization. Ancient Babylonia 
and Assyria at one time stood at the highest point of civiliza- 
tion that the world had yet attained; and as late as the eighth 
century a.d. a Semitic people, the Arabs, threatened to bring 
all Christendom under their control. Moreover, it must be 
noted that a Hamitic people, the Egyptians, was the earliest 
civilized nation of which we have historic records ; and that 
a Turanian nation, the Hungarians, settled in the heart of 
Europe, has kept pace in civilization with its Aryan neigh- 
bors. Yet, as a rule, the non-Aryan races have not been pro- 
gressive. They reach a certain point of civilization, and then 
Colby's gen. hist. — 2 



18 GENERAL HISTORY 

remain stationary or even retrograde, leaving to others to carry 
further what has been begun. For example, in the Dark Ages 
the Moors of Spain, a branch of the Semites, were the most 
enlightened people of Europe ; but their intellectual energy 
declined, and it fell to the lot of Aryans to apply and improve 
upon what the Moors had taught. 

Periods of History. — The division of history into periods is 
in one sense misleading, for the chain of events of which his- 
tory treats is continuous, and there is no sharp line of division 
between them. But viewing certain periods of time as a 
whole, we find certain characteristics in one which are not 
j)resent in another, and it is therefore convenient to separate 
them in our minds. The most general division is into Ancient 
and Modern : the former ending with the downfall of the 
Roman Empire in the West in 476 a.d., when the invasion of 
the Teutonic barbarians prepared the way for a new distribu- 
tion of races and for the foundation of the states of modern 
Europe ; the latter beginning with that date, and continuing to 
our own day. The more useful division, however, and that 
which will be followed in the present work, is threefold, as 
follows : 

Ancient History, from the earliest times to 476 a.d. 

Mediaeval History, or the history of the Middle Ages, the 
period between the downfall of the Roman Empire in the West 
(476 A.D.) and the time when European nations assumed to a 
great extent the character which they still retain. A conven- 
ient point to mark the end of this period is the fall of Constan- 
tinople, in 1453 A.D. 

Modern History, from the fall of Constantinoi)le in 1453 to 
our own times. 

In treating of these periods it will be found convenient to 
divide each of them in turn into minor periods, according 
to certain characteristics which will appear later. 



INTRODUCTION 19 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Definition of History. 

Kinds of History: Intellectual History. History of Morals. Political 
History, Constitutional History. Economic History. 

Kelated Branches of Learning : Geography. Ethnology. Philology. 

Uses of History. 

Prehistoric Man : Stone Age. Bronze Age. Iron Age. 

Classification of Races: Grand Divisions: Aryan, Semitic, Hamitic, 
Turanian, Negroid. 

The Aryan Race. 
Periods of History: 

I. Ancient — to 476 a.d. 
II. Mediaeval — 476 a.d. to 1453 a.d. 
III. Modern — 1453 a.d. to the present time. 




20 



ANCIENT HISTORY 

CHAPTER II 

ORIENTAL PEOPLES 

Divisions of Ancient History. — Ancient history carries the 
narrative of events down to the year 476 a.d. In writing of 
this long period it will be convenient to separate it into two 
divisions : the first extending from the earliest time of which we 
have authentic records down to the early part of the fifth cen- 
tury B.C. ; the second, from the latter date to 476 a.d. The 
reason for taking the early part of the fifth century b.c. as the 
dividing line is that before that time history deals with. Ori- 
ental nations, while after it Greece and Rome are the central 
points of interest. In other words, the scene shifts from Africa 
and Asia to Europe when, in 492 b.c, Persia, the last of the 
ancient monarchies of southwestern Asia, enters on her great 
war with Greece. 

Ancient Peoples of the East. — The ancient peoples of the 
East whose history falls within the first of these divisions are 
the Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, Phoenicians, 
Persians, Chinese, and Hindus. The first of these, the Egyp- 
tians, would seem from their geographical position to belong to 
the Western group of nations, but in reality they have more in 
common with the Oriental peoples. Wars and commerce 
brought them into contact with the latter, and their civilization 
was essentially of the Asiatic type. What this type was, as 
distinguished from the form which Greece, Rome, and the 
other European nations assumed, will appear later. For the 
present it is enough to say that the ancient nations of Asia 

21 



22 GENERAL HISTORY 

and Africa never advanced beyond a despotic form of govern- 
ment, in which the power of the ruler was absolute; and that 
their art, literature, and science, after reaching a certain 
stage of progress, remained stationary, while European nations 
showed a steady tendency to progress, both in forms of govern- 
ment and in learning. 

Geographical Situation of the Earliest Civilized Nations. — The 
first nations to advance beyond the stage of barbarism were 
those which inhabited regions favorable to the production of 
wealth, either because of the fertility of the soil or on account 
of an advantageous situation in respect to trade. Egypt was 
nothing more than the fertile valley of the Nile. So in Asia 
the great kingdoms arose in the valleys of the Tigris and Eu- 
phrates rivers, and in the land watered by the Ganges, the Indus, 
1 he Hoang-Ho, the Yangtze Kiang, and their tributaries. Central 
Asia is a great plateau divided and bordered by chains of moun- 
tains. To the north are the plains of Siberia, stretching to the 
Arctic Ocean ; on the east and south, mountain ranges separate it 
from the lowlands of China and India. Southwestern Asia, ex- 
tending from the Indus Eiver on the east to the Mediterranean 
Sea on the west, comprises the table-lands of Iran, the valleys 
of the Euphra'tes and Tigris, and the rich plains of Mesopota- 
mia, the region between these rivers. West and south of the 
Euphrates lies the peninsula of Arabia, itself a plateau, but of 
lower elevation than that of Iran, and stretching from the Medi- 
terranean Sea to the Indian Ocean, and from the Red Sea to 
the Persian Gulf. The barren plateau of central Asia has in all 
ages supported only a population of Mongols and Tartars, — 
nomad tribes which never advanced beyond the stage of bar- 
barism. On the other hand, the lowlands and valleys on the 
east and south were the seats of the ancient civilizations of 
China and India; and in southwestern Asia, in the regions 
bordering on the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, and on the Cas- 
pian, Black, and Mediterranean Seas, the flourishing kingdoms 
of Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Judea, and Phoenicia arose. 



CHAPTER III 



EGYPT 



The Land. — Ancient Egypt was a narrow strip of country 
extending along both banks of the Nile, from the first cata- 
ract near the old city of Syene \^Si-ee'nee ; modern Assuan'], 
n o r t h w a r d to the 
mouth of the river 
in the Mediterranean 
Sea. The ancients 
gave it the name of 
Kem, or the Black 
Country, on account 
of its rich black soil, 
fertilized by deposits 
of mud left by the 
river, which every 
year overflows its 
banks. "Egypt," 
says the Greek his- 
torian Herod'otus, " is 
the gift of the Nile ; " 
and this saying ap- 
plies not only to the 
country itself, but to 
the character and cus- 
toms of the people, 
for the whole history 
of the Egyptian peo- 
ple Avas determined by the natural features of the land in 
which they lived. Occupying the one fertile region in the 
midst of deserts, and having no neighbors except rude no- 
madic tribes, Egypt, during the greater part of her history, 

23 




24 GENERAL HISTORY 

was shut off from contact with any race that had reached a 
degree of civilization approaching her own. 

The People. — Although the Egyptiaus are here classed as Ha- 
niitic, they are included by some in the Semitic race ; in reality, 
their origin is unknown. They are thought to have come 
from Asia; but the earliest records that we have show them 
living in the valley of the Nile, and there is nothing to prove 
positively that they had ever lived elsewhere. Thousands of 
years before Greece or Rome became known to history, a pecul- 
iar race, of reddish brown color and smooth black hair, differ- 
ing both in appearance and in language from the tribes around 
them, dwelt in the land of Egypt. At that early period they 
had most of the characteristics tliat marked their later history, 
and they had already reached a high degree of civilization. 
This is all that is known in regard to them when they first 
appeared in history. All else is mere supposition. 

Sources of Information. — Man'etho, an Egyptian priest who 
lived in the third century n.c, prepared a list of the rulers of 
Egypt, dating from the earliest times. Unfortunately the 
original text of this list has been lost, but fragments of it have 
been preserved in the works of several ancient writers. These 
fragments of Manetho's list Avere the only important source for 
early Egyptian history till the nineteenth century, when the 
researches of European scholars led to the discovery of the art 
of reading the Egyptian manuscripts, and the inscriptions with 
which the ancient Egyptians were accustomed to adorn their 
monuments and other memorials of the dead. The information 
given by Herodotus, who visited Egypt in the fifth century e.g., 
is interesting but untrustworthy ; for he seems to have believed, 
without questioning, all the stories that were told him, and to 
have repeated mere traveler's tales which are not supported 
by what we have gathered from other sources. 

The Hieroglyphics. — We owe most of our knowledge of an- 
cient Egypt to the inscriptions and manuscripts written in the 
characters called Hieroglyphics. This curious style of writing 
consisted of pictures or symbols representing words or letters. 



EGYPT 25 

Thus, a circle stood for the sun, a crescent for the moon, an 
oval figure for the mouth, etc.- As different pictures or signs 
were often used to represent the same word or sound, it is not 
strange that many centuries passed before scholars were able 
to decipher the hieroglyphic text. It was not till after 1799 
that any clew to their meaning was discovered. In that year 
the linding of the Rosetta Stone gave the first key to the read- 
ing of hieroglyphics. On this stone the same inscription was 
given in three different sets of characters, — the hieroglyphics, 
the demotic text (a briefer and more running form of hiero- 
glyphics, commonly used in the papyri or manuscripts), and 
the Greek. By comparing the letters in certain Greek proper 
names with the letters of the same words in the Egyptian 
texts, the sounds for which the Egyptian characters stood were 
discovered. 

Note on the Rosetta Stone. — The Greek text, when translated, 
showed that the mscription was an ordinance of the priests decreeing cer- 
tain honors to Ptol'emy Epiph'anes on the occasion of his coronation, 
196 B.C. (Ptolemy Epiphanes was one of a line of Greek sovereigns who 
ruled over Egypt from the time of its conquest by Alexander in the fourth 
century, to the first century n.c.) It contains a command that the de- 
cree should be inscribed in tlie sacred letters (hieroglyphics), the letters 
of the country (demotic), and Greek letters, — and this for the conven- 
ience of the mixed population of Egypt under its Greek rulers. It was 
natural to conclude that the three texts were the same in substance, and 
accordingly earnest efforts were made to decipher the hieroglyphics by 
aid of the Greek. The first clew was obtained by noticing that certain 
groups of the hieroglyphic characters were inclosed in oval rings, and that 
these groups corresponded in relative position with certain proper names, 
such as Ptolemy, etc., in the Greek text. The following line presents a 
few of the characters with a group in the oval ring. (Each word is- read 
from right to left.) 

(Ptolemy eternal beloved of Phtah) of Egypt king of statue raising 



26 GENERAL HISTORY 

It was by comparison of the group judged on strong grounds to be the 
name Ptolemy, with another group (found on another stone) supposed 
to stand for the name Cleopatra, that the first great advance v.as made. 
The groups were as follows : — 



Suppooud tu be I'tultiiuj. Suiipused to be Cleopatra. 

In Greek Ptolemy is Ftolemaios, and Cleopatra is Kleopatra. If now 
the hieroglyphic characters were Zeiie^-signs, the characters 1, 2, 3, 4, in 
Ptolemaios should correspond respectively with 5, 7, 4, 2, in Kleopatra 
(XXiQjirst letter in Ptolemaios being the fifth in Kleopatra, etc.). In this 
way several letters were discovered ; by means of other groups the whole 
alphabet was made out, and finally it was proved that by this phonetic 
alphabet the characters and groups could be resolved into the Coptic lan- 
guage of Egypt, which was already understood by scholars. It should not 
be forgotten that the great work of deciphering was mainly effected by 
the French savant, Champollion. 

Antiquity of Egyptian Civilization. — Egypt is the oldest civ- 
ilized nation of which we liave record Monuments and build- 
ings, constructed with such skill that they have stood the Avear 
and tear of thousands of years, bear witness to the fact that 
the people of this remote period were already far advanced in 
the arts of civilization. Just how far back to place the found- 
ing of the Egyptian kingdom we do not know : for scholars are 
not agreed, and between the earliest and the latest dates which 
they assign there is a difference of three thousand years. 
Some hold that Me'nes, the founder of the empire, lived as 
early as 5700 years before Christ, while others give his date as 
2700 B.C. Most agree, however, in making it earlier than 
3500 B.C.. and recent researches have led historians to incline 
toward earlier dates. 

Periods of Egyptian History. — The history of Egypt may be 
divided into three periods, — the Old Empire, to about 2100 
B.c; the Middle Empire, from 2100 b.c. to the expulsion of 
the Kyksos or Shepherd Kings, about 1700 b.c. ; the New 



EGYPT 



27 



Empire, from 1700 B.C. to the conquest of Egypt by the Per- 
sians, in 525 B.C. 

The Old Empire, to 2100 B.C. — The seat of the original 
empire was Lower (that is, northern) Egypt, and its capital 
was Memphis. Of Menes, the first of the kings, or Pharaohs, 
little is known. He is said to have been a warlike monarch 
and to have reigned for sixty-two years, after which he was 
eaten by a crocodile. The* record of these remote times is by 
dynasties, or periods of rule by families, not by years, and it 
is not till the seventh century B.C. that the dates of events can 
be given. 




The Oukat Pyramid at Gizeii 

Fourth Dynasty. — Not much has come down to us in regard 
to the first three dynasties, but the fourth was an era of great 
progress in literature and the industrial arts. To this period 
belongs the great Pyramid of Gizeh [gee'zeh], near Memphis, 
till recent times the highest and largest building in the w^orld, 
which, with the two smaller pyramids near it, still stands, after 
thousands of years, as an evidence of the marvelous skill and 
industry of the builders. 



28 GENERAL HISTORY 

Art and Literature. — The art of this period, as exliibitecl 
in the engravings on monuments and tablets, reached a higli 
degree of perfection, and in fact shows ratlier more skill in 
the imitation of nature than in later times, when a too rigid 
observance of established rules restricted the artist to a con- 
ventional or formal method of execution. The period of the 
hftli dynasty was also distinguished for the excellence of its 
artistic and literary works. During this time Avere produced 
the beautiful sculptures on the tomb of King Ti at Sakka'rah, 
illustrating events in the life of that monarch ; and we have, 
too, the papyrus or manuscript of Ptah-Hotep, a royal official, 
who gives wise moral advice much in the style of the Book 
of Proverbs in the Old Testament : thus, '' If thou art become 
great after thou hast been lowly and if thou hast heaped up 
riches after poverty, let not thy heart be puffed up because of 
thy riches, for it is God who has given them unto thee." To 
this period also belongs a portion of the Book of the Dead, 
the oldest book in existence, which recounts in mystical lan- 
guage the adventures of the soul after it has left the body, and 
tells how it can save itself by calling on the names of the gods. 

Twelfth Dynasty. — Prom the close of the sixth to the begin- 
ning of the eleventh dynasty there is a gap in historical records, 
and at the end of this period we find that the capital has been 
transferred from Memphis to Thebes. The period of the new 
Theban rulers was rich in the productions of art and litera- 
ture. Amenem'hat I., the founder of the twelfth dynasty, was a 
warlike prince, and under his successors the neighboring tribes 
were conquered, and the limits of the empire pushed farther 
south. User'tesen I. erected the obelisk of Heliop'olis, near 
Cairo. Another king of the same name conquered the Nubians ; 
and Amenemhat III. built the famous reservoir called Lake 
Moeris, for receiving and distributing the waters of the Nile. 

The Middle Empire, 2100 B.C. to about 1700 B.C, — The 
Theban kings, however, gradually lost power, and the fifteenth 
dynasty bears the name of the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings. 
The period of the Middle Empire, therefore, was one of for- 



EGYPT 



29 



eign rule. There is much dispute as to the race and origin of 
these Hyksos kings, but it is generally thought that they were 
a Semitic people. Although they adopted the names and style 
of native Egyptian kings, 
the country was restless 
under their rule ; and so 
great was the hatred in 
which they were held, 
that when the Egyptians 
at last succeeded in plac- 
ing a native monarch on 
the throne they destroyed 
almost every trace that 
could remind them of 
their oppressors. Accord- 
ingly, the records of the 
time are very scanty. 

The Hyksos seem never 
to have fully subdued the 
people. In some parts of 
Egypt the country was in 
the hands of native gov- 
ernors ; and it was the 
efforts of the last of the Hyksos to reduce the southern dis- 
tricts to complete subjection that led to a war of independence 
and the expulsion of the foreigners. A native prince rebels 
against the last of the Hyksos, and drives him from power ; 
and after a long struggle we find the descendants of this suc- 
cessful patriot ruling securely on the throne of Menes. 

The New Empire, from 1700 B.C. to the Conquest of Egypt by 
the Persians, in 525 B.C. — After the expulsion of the Hyksos, 
Egypt entered on a flourishing period. Aah'mes or Ama'sis I. 
was the first great ruler of the New Empire. Under him and 
his successors Egypt departed from her old conservative policy, 
and waged wars of conquest not only with her immediate neigh- 
bors, but with the countries of the East. She annexed the 




Ojjelisk of IIeliopoli 



30 



GENERAL HISTORY 



region now called the Soudan, subdued Palestine, overran 
western Asia, filled her treasury with the 
wealth of conquered provinces, and brought 
) back thousands of captives to work on her 
h.ifp great buildings. This was the period of the 
powerful sovereigns who bore the names 
Ameno'phis and Thothnies, and especially of 
Ramses II., called Sesostris by the Greeks, 
identified by many with the Pharaoh who 
oppressed the children of Israel. He won 
renown by his long wars with the Hittites, 
and even more by his works of peace, for he 
delighted in building great monuments and 
in having the story of his deeds inscribed upon them. A long 
epic poem, celebrating his exploits, was engraved ux^on the 





SlIKINE OF AliU SlMlSKL 



walls of many tem])les at Aby'dos, Karnak, Luxor, and other 
Xjlaces. Temples were l)uilt in his honor at Memphis and 



EGYPT 



31 



Thebes; and near Karnak stands the Ramesse'um, or House 
of Ramses, one of the famous buildings of antiquity. It was 
he, too, who built the rock-hewn shrine of Abu-Simbel, over- 
looking the Nile, with four huge statues guarding its entrance. 

Decline of Egyptian Power. — The period between 1600 b.o. 
and the close of Ramses' reign in the fourteenth century b.c. 
marks the highest point of Egyptian power. She was then 
the leading nation of the world, but under the successors of 
Ramses her power waned. The long wars had raised enemies 
on all sides, and at the same time created a military class, 
accnstomed to live by the spoils of war instead of the arts 
of peace. AVeakened internally, and beset by outside foes, she 
passed under the control of Ethiopian rulers, and at last went 
down before the rising power of Assyria. After regaining her 
independence for a short period, during which she enjoyed 
something of her old prosperity, she became tributary to Per- 
sia, whose king, Cambyses, defeated her army at Pelusinm in 
525 B.C. After this she never regained her power, but merely 
exchanged the rule of one foreign oppressor for that of another. 

Egyptian Society. — The Greek accounts of Egypt show that 
the people were divided into distinct 
classes, of which the highest were 
the priests and the soldiers. Below 
these were the tillers of the soil, 
the artificers, and the herdsmen. 
But while particular rights were 
denied the lower classes, 
there was no such barrier 
between classes as existed in India. 
It was not required that a man 
should follow the profession of his 
fathers. Education was not 
generally diffused, but was 
conhned for the most part 
to the priests, who produced an extensive and varied litera- 
ture, and knew somethinsr of the sciences. The warrior class 




Soldiers of the Body Guard of Eaaises TI. 



32 GENERAL HISTORY 

became especially important under the o^ew Empire. The 
army comprised infantry, cavalry, and charioteers. The priests 
and soldiers alone could hold land in their own right. The 
common people seem to have been in the condition of serfs, 
obliged to work on the land of the nobles and the king. 

Government. — The power of the king, though limited to 
some extent by the rights of the nobles, was still very great. 
The Pharaohs were, in fact, regarded as divine beings, de- 
scended from the gods. 

Religion. — The gods of the Egyptians w^ere very numerous, 
each locality paying especial homage to some particular deity. 
Yet there is evidence to show that, among the 
educated classes, there was a belief in a single 
god, all the other divinities being regarded as 
mere symbols of the divine power in its various 
aspects. Chief among the deities were Osi'ris 
and his sister Isis, who were worshiped by all 
Egyptians. Osiris was the chief snn god; Ho- 
rns, his son, the god of the new or rising sun; 
and they were regarded as the adversaries of 
the gods of darkness who wielded the power 
that made for evil. 

Anubis, the Guide . to 

OF THE Dead Animal Worship. — A peculiar feature of the 

Egyptian religion was the worship of animals. 
The bull, Apis, was worshiped as a god at Memphis ; and 
many other animals, such as the ibis, the cow, the crocodile, 
the cat, etc., were sacred to particular gods. The greatest 
reverence was shown for these animals, which were kept in the 
temples and most carefully tended. 

Burial. — Another striking religious custom was the embalm- 
ing of the dead. It was thought that the soul would reanimate 
the body at the resurrection, and for this reason great care was 
taken to preserve the body from decay and provide it with a 
suitable resting place. Embalming was so skillfully and effec- 
tively done that decay was often prevented for thousands of 
years. The interior of the sepulcher was often decorated, and 




EGYPT 



33 



food and drink were placed beside the body. These houses of 
the dead were among the finest and the most enduring of 
Egyptian buildings. 




Mummy 



Architecture. — Some of the most famous examples of Egyp- 
tian architecture have already been mentioned. In their talent 
for building and in the vast wealth and labor expended on pub- 
lic works, the Egyptians surpassed all the other ancient na- 
tions. The characteristics of their buildings and monuments 
were their massiveness and great size. Huge blocks of stones 
were moved long distances, to form the roofs of temples or the 
walls of pyramids. In the absence of modern appliances, the 
labor and time involved can scarcely be estimated. 

The chief architectural figure was the S2:)hinx ; a symbolical 
statue, often of colossal size, having the head of a human being 
or an animal, and the body of a lion with wings attached. The 
most noted of these is that still standing near Gizeh. 

Another remarkable feature of Egyptian architecture was 
the pyramid, a huge pointed structure of stone, designed as a 
royal sepulcher. The pyramids are very numerous, the most 
famous being the Great Pyramid, also at Gizeh. It was the 
tomb of the ancient king Khu'fu or Cheops [Ke'ops], and is 
said to have measured nearly 481 feet in height with a base 
764 feet square, but it has been stripped of many of its stones 
for the building of the neighboring city of Cairo. The palaces 
and temples, were of enormous size, and the way to them was 
often lined by rows of gigantic pillars, sphinxes, or obelisks. 



COLBY'S GEN. HIST, 



— 3 



34 



GENERAL HISTORY 



Egyptian Arts. — The walls of temples and other structures 
were often highly ornamented, with figures suggested by the 
forms of Egyptian vegetation, such as the palm, the lotus 
flower, and papyrus. These sculptures often show great artis- 
tic skill, but the art of the Egyptians was not progressive, and 
the designs were conventional. Rules and traditions, rather 




An Egyptian Temple 



than the study of nature, governed the artist in his work. 
Bright colors were employed in decoration, but in painting, 
also, Egyptian art was stationary. 

Musical instruments of many kinds were known and used, 
and it is probable that the Egyptians were skilled in their use. 
Music accompanied the dance, and formed a part of religious 
ceremonies. 

In the practical arts, such as glass making, metal working, 
the engraving of gems, and the manufacture of linen, they 
were very skillful. From the papyrus, a reed that formerly 
grew in abundance in northern Egypt, they made, by an in- 
genious process, sheets of a paper-like substance which was 
used for writing. Rolls made of this material were the books 




Egyptians Sowing 



EGYPT 35 

of the Egyptians, from whom in hiter times the Greeks and 
Komans learned the art of preparing the papyrus. 

Agriculture and Commerce. — The people were mainly agri- 
cultural, but employed rude methods of cultivation. In spite 
of this, the remarkably 
fertile soil yielded an 
abundance of produce, 
and Egypt was known as 
the granary of the world. 

The Egyptians were not 
an adventurous people, and they did not give much attention 
to maritime enterprise. The foreign trade finally passed to 
the Phoenicians. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Ancient History. Chief Ancient Peoples of the East: Egyptians; 
Assyrians ; Babylonians ; Hindus ; Hebrews ; Phoenicians ; Persians. 

Geographical Situation. 

Divisions of Ancient History : 

I. To the close of the fifth century B.C. 

II. From the close of the fifth century b.c. to 476 a.d. 

Egypt. The Land. The People. Sources of Information ; Manetho's 
list ; Hieroglyphics ; Herodotus. 

Periods of Egyptian History : 

I. The Old Empire, from 3500 (?) b.c. to 2100 b.c 

II. The Middle Empire, from 2100 b.c. to 1700 b.c 

III. The New Empire, from 1700 b.c to 525 b.c 

The Old Empire, 3500 (?) b.c to 2100 b.c. : Menes the founder. 
The fourth dynasty. The fifth dynasty. The Theban kings. 

The Middle Empire, 2100 b.c to 1700 b.c : Egypt under the Hyksos. 
Expulsion of the Hyksos. 

The Neav Empire, 1700 B.C. to 525 b.c : Conquests under Amasis and 
his successors. Ramses II. Decline of Egyptian power. Conquest 
by Cambyses, 525 b.c 



CHAPTER IV 

BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS 

Geography. — The Babylonians and the Assyrians lived in 
the region of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in southwestern 




ANCIENT BABYLONLV / 
A2HD ASSYKIA 



Asia. The former occupied the fertile district to the south 
of the point where these two rivers approach closely to each 
other, while the higher and more mountainous tract to the 

36 



BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS 37 

north was the dwelling place of the Assyrians. It was natural 
that the fertile lowlands should support the larger population 
and produce the earlier civilization, and the Babylonians had 
become a numerous and civilized people long before their 
neighbors and kinsmen to the north are heard of in history. 
In fact, these alluvial valleys of the two great rivers, and the 
district adjoining the Persian Gulf, were the starting point of 
the civilization of western Asia. Wheat, barley, and many 
kinds of fruit grew wild, and the efforts of the cultivator 
were rewarded by rich liar vests. Besides the natural means 
of communication afforded by the rivers, the country was pro- 
vided with a vast system of canals. 

The Race. — Before scholars had learned how to decipher 
the cuneiform (v/edge-shaped) inscriptions of the Babylonians 
and Assyrians, the de- 
tails of their history were ^>^^ 1^^ A ^ti 1^ 1^ i 
scanty, being mostly con- 

•^ ' ^ . . "^ ilu Nabu- kudurri-uzur 

fined to the writings of the Name Nkbuchadnezzar m Ctr.EiFORM 

Herodotus, the Greek 

historian, and of Bero'sus, a Babylonian priest. The reading of 
the cuneiform texts, however, brought to light a great number 
of interesting and important facts, many of them described 
nearly at the time of their occurrence. The Babylonians and 
Assyrians were two divisions of the same race. The primitive 
ancestors of both seem to have belonged to the Turanian 
famil}^, that which includes the modern Turks and Chinese ; 
but at an early date large numbers of Semites, probably from 
Arabia, settled in the country, and, mingling with the natives, 
in the course of time gave the race a distinctively Semitic 
character. This change, however, was less pronounced among 
the Assyrians of the north than among the Babylonians, whose 
country was more inviting to immigrants. 

The Legendary Period. — Babylonian writers filled up the 
centuries that precede the period at which their genuine 
history begins with a mass of legends. They reckoned that 
432,000 years elapsed before the Deluge, and this time was 



38 • GENERAL HISTORY 

said to have been taken up with the reigns of ten kings. 
From the Deluge down to the time when Babylonia fell under 
the power of the Persians was a period of 36,000 years. Their 
story of the Deluge is almost the same as the account given in 
the Bible. Their Noah was Xisu'thros, who with his family 
and friends survived the flood, the rest of the human race 
being drowned for their sins. Like Noah, he built an ark, 
and stocked it with all kinds of animals; and the ark was 
stranded on a mountain top. The biblical account of the Tower 
of Babel appears with hardly any variation in the early Baby- 
lonian records. Many of their stories also bear a marked re- 
semblance to Greek myths, and, like the latter, were gathered 
in a great epic poem said to have been written 2000 years before 
Christ, and kept in the library of the city of Urukh. 

Early Babylonian History. — The land of the Babylonians 
was divided into the two regions Akkad, in the north, and 
Sumer or Shinar, in the south. To the west of the Euphrates 
the land was termed Edinna, and has been identified by some 
with the Eden of Genesis. The term Chaldea is sometimes 
applied to Babylonia, but is more properly confined to the 
low portion, bordering on the Persian Gulf; and the Chal- 
deans, who dwelt there, are not heard of in history till the 
ninth century b.c. 

The biblical account makes Nimrod the ancestor and founder 
of the Babylonians. Their early history is very obscure and 
confused. We hear of a great king named Lig-Bagas or Ur- 
Bagas, who ruled 'over both Akkad and Sumer, and built enor- 
mous structures of sun-dried bricks, one of which (200 feet 
square and 100 feet high) is estimated to have contained 
30,000,000 bricks. 

Sargon. — But a greater name is that of Sargon, famous as a 
lawgirer, a conqueror, and a patron of learning. He made 
campaigns against Syria and Palestine, and carried the Baby- 
lonian culture to the shores of the Mediterranean. That culture 
was already extensive. A great mass of astronomical and 
astrological learning was collected for Sargon by the scholars 



BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS . 30 

of his court, and gathered into seventy-two books, which were 
afterwards translated into Greek. The exact date of his reign 
cannot be ascertained, but the antiquity of Babylonian civiliza- 
tion is thought to surpass that of the Egyptian. One chronicler 
places the reign of Sargon's son and successor at 3750 b.c. 
The Babylonian monarchy, however, was weakened by dis- 
union. The greatest of its kings could hold the kingdom 
together for only a short time. Sargon himself could not 
bring the land 6f Sumer under his control. This weakness 
invited invasion ; and a foreign dynasty, the Cassite or Cos- 
sae'an, probably of Arabic origin, ruled the country for several 
centuries. 

Assyrians. — While the Cassites were ruling in Babylon, the 
princes of Assyria were gradually building up a powerful 
kingdom. After a while they became strong enough to treat 
on equal terms with Babylonia, and finally, a war arising, 
marched into the kingdom and captured Babylon (1270 b.c). 
Thenceforth the Assyrians were the dominant i)eople. For a 
time Babylonia kept its independence, but finally fell under 
the power of its more warlike neighbor. The Assyrian king 
Tig 'lath-Pile 'ser I. gave the finishing blow to the old Babylo- 
nian monarchy ; and he extended his conquests in other direc- 
tions, even, it is said, into Kurdistan' and to the shores of the 
Mediterranean. 

Then followed a period in which the Assyrian power waned 
and the Babylonians regained their independence. Later, 
however, a succession of strong Assyrian rulers not only made 
themselves supreme in Babylonia, but overran Armenia, Cil- 
icia,. Mesopotamia, and other countries of Asia Minor, and 
made the Phoenicians on the Mediterranean coast pay tribute. 
One of the greatest of these princes was Shalmane'ser II., who 
reigned in the middle of the ninth century b.c. He was 
constantly engaged in war, defeated a confederation of west- 
ern princes, of whom Ahab, King of Israel, was one, and 
humbled the power of Syria. Under him the First Assyrian 
Empire reached its height. It was the greatest power in west- 



40 ^ GENERAL HISTORY 

ern Asia ; but, though its conquests were extensive, it did not 
hold the conquered lands under its sway. It knew how to 
win victories, but it did not organize the conquered lands and 
make them a part of its empire. 

The Second Assyrian Empire. — With the accession of Tig- 
lath-Pileser II. in 745 b.c. a new period begins, that of the 
Second Assyrian Empire, which differed from the first in its 
policy of consolidating the conquered provinces under its own 
rule. Tiglath-Pileser II. was not content with exacting tribute 
from his conquered enemies. He placed Assyrian governors 
over them, and turned their lands into provinces of his empire. 
He died in 727 b.c. ; and five years later another great con- 
quering prince, who had assumed the name of the old Baby- 
lonian Sargon, came to the throne. Sargon conquered all 
his enemies in Asia, including Hittites, Jews, Phoenicians, and 
Syrians. Babylonia having won her independence, he con- 
quered her again, and had himself crowned king in Babylon. 
All western Asia was fused into an Assyrian empire. The only 
dangerous rival was Egypt, whose conquest he left for his suc- 
cessors to complete, though he had defeated an Egyptian army 
in 720 B.C. 

Sennacherib. — Sennach'erib (705-681 b.c.) managed to hold 
the empire together ; but though his inscriptions boast of great 
conquests, he seems not to have been always successful. 
He tried to capture Jerusalem, and failed. He is famous as a 
builder of canals and aqueducts, and of a huge palace at Nin- 
eveli. Under his successor, Esar-haddon (681-669 b.c), the 
Second Empire reached the summit of its power. This mon- 
arch conquered Egypt on the south, and in the north pene- 
trated into the little-known region of Media. 

Sardanapalus. — The last great Assyrian king was Assur- 
bani-pal, known to the Greeks as Sardanap'alus. He was a 
magnificent and luxurious prince, famous rather as a patron 
of literature and art than as a Avarrior. Under him the empire 
reached its widest extent, but decay had already set in. Seri- 
ous revolts broke out in Babylonia and other parts of his 



BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS 



41 



dominions, and were put down with the greatest difficulty. 
The empire lasted only a few years after his death. Babylonia 
again became independent, in 625 B.c.,and soon afterwards the 
Medes and their allies captured Nineveh and overthrew the 
Assyrian kingdom. Assyria was then shared between Media 
and Babylonia. 

The Second Babylonian Empire. — For a time Babylonia re- 
gained something of its ancient greatness. Nebuchadnez'zar 
brought the empire to the height of its fame. Among his 
warlike deeds were his defeat of the Egyptians, whom he com- 
pelled to give up Syria, and the capture of Jerusalem, which 
resulted in the carrying away of the Jewish families of the 
upper class into captivity at Babylon. 




Assyrian Palace at Nineveu 



The city of Babylon, under Nebuchadnezzar, was enlarged 
and improved. For wealth, luxury, and the magnificence of 
its buildings, it was unequaled. No ancient city can be com- 
pared to it in size. Its walls are said to have measured 
forty miles in circumference, and seventy or eighty feet in 
height. The famous ' hanging gardens,' which were terraces 
made in imitation of mountain scenery, were constructed by 
Nebuchadnezzar to please his Median queen. Another famous 
structure was the temple of Bel or Baal, which was roofed 
with cedar overlaid with gold. 

Fall of the Kingdom. — Nebuchadnezzar died in 562 B.C., 



42 GENERAL HISTORY 

after a reign of about forty -two years ; and with him perished 
the Babylonian kingdom, for his successors lacked the vigor 
to withstand the attacks of a new power that had appeared 
in Asia Minor; namely, the Persian monarchy. Under the 
leadership of Cyrus the Great, the Persians had gained do- 
minion over the Medes, and begun a career of conquest. The 
story of the capture and destruction of Babylon is told in 
the Bible. The last king was Naboni'dus, who was ruling in 
connection with Belshaz'zar. 

Babylonian and Assyrian Civilizations. — In science, particu- 
larly in astronomy, the early Babylonians surpassed the Egyp- 
tians. As they were worshipers of natural objects, especially 
of the heavenly bodies, it was not strange that they made care- 
ful astronomical observations. It is said that Alexander the 
Great foinid tliese observations extending for an unbroken 
period of 1903 years. The Babylonians divided the year into 
twelve months, the week into seven days, the day (from sun- 
rise to sunset) into twelve hours, and the hour into sixty min- 
ntes. From the Babylonians came the knowledge of weights 
and measures to the Western nations. 

Architecture and Sculpture. — In architecture they did wonder- 
ful work, constructing huge buildings from the rude materials 
which they had at hand. They knew the art of coloring, and 
many of their sculptures were brilliantly colored. Therein they 
differed from the Assyrians, whose work shows no regard for 
bright colors. Both the Babylonians and the Assyrians showed 
extraordinary skill in sculpture, especially in their bas-reliefs ; 
and while the figures are generally not lifelike, there is a certain 
simplicity and vigor especially in the drawing of animal figures. 
Other arts also flourished, as the cutting of gems, dyeing, weav- 
ing, and embroidering. The Babylonians were noted for their 
luxury. 

Religion. — Their religion was like that of the Phoenicians. 
Baal was their god, who was identified especially with the sun, 
the giver of life and light to his adorers, and of fierce heat to 
those who failed to do him honor. With him was associated 



BABYLONIANS AND ASSYKIANS 



43 



Baaltis, a female divinity, the goddess of the fertile earth. Be- 
sides, there were gods of the sky, of the moon, of the waters,, 
of love, etc. Ish'tar or Ash'- 
toreth was the goddess of 
war and love. The Assyr- 
ians had the same religion 
as the Babylonians, but the 
god Ass'ur was the guar- 
dian deity of their country. 
They were much more sav- 
age than the Babylonians, 
lacked their literary skill, 
but showed a greater apti- 
tude for trade. During their flourishing days Nineveh was 
the greatest commercial city in the world. 




ISIITAR 

From an Assyrian Cylinder 



SUMMARY 

Babylonians and Assyrians. — Geographical Situation. — The Race. — 
Legendary Period : Babylonian Chronology and Legends, — Early 
Babylonian History : Nimrod. Lig-Bagas. Sargon, The Cassite or 
Cossaean Dynasty. — Assyrian Ascendancy. Tiglath-Pileser I. As- 
syrian Conquests. Shalmaneser II. — Second Assyrian Empire: 
Tiglath-Pileser II. Sargon. Sennacherib. Esar-haddon. Assur- 
bani-pal. The Fall of the Empire. — Second Babylonian Empire: 
Nebuchadnezzar. Overthrow of Babylonia by Cyrus the Great. — 
Babylonian and Assyrian Civilization : Science. Religion. Art and 
Architecture. 



CHAPTER V 

THE HEBREWS 



Introduction. — The mission of the Jews was to found a reli- 
gion which should influence the entire world. Their history is 
the history of the development of that religion, and its survival 
in the midst of dangers and hostile influences, and in spite of 
the occasional backslidings of the Jews themselves. The de- 



44 



GENERAL HISTORY 



tails of the subject are of such interest and importance that 
they make up a special field of study by themselves. They 
belong to the department of Sacred History, and can not 
be treated fully in the 
present work. It is pos- 
sible to give here only 
some of the leading facts 
in Jewish history, espe- 
cially such as show their 
relations to other ancient 
races. 

The Race. — The Jews 
belonged to the Semitic 
race, and consequently 
were closely allied to the 
Phoenicians, Assyrians, 
Babylonians, and Arabs. 
They traced their descent 
from Abraham, who left 
his native place of Ur, 
on the Euphrates River, 
and came into the " prom- 
ised land" of Canaan, 
which was on the west- 
ern side of Syria, south of Phoenicia. There he wandered 
with his herds, and founded a family. According to the 
biblical narrative, one of his descendants, Joseph, was sold 
into slavery, and carried away into Egypt, where he won the 
favor of the Egyptian king or Pharaoh, who permitted Jo- 
seph and his family to settle in the land of Goshen, in north- 
ern Egypt. Here, in the pasture lands of Goshen, they lived 
as herdsmen, till there came to the Egyptian throne a new 
line of rulers, who, being jealous of the growing numbers 
and prosperity of the Hebrews, began to oppress them. The 
Book of Exodus tells how a great leader, Moses, arose to res- 
cue them from the land of bondage, how he communed with God 




THE HEBREWS 45 

on Mount Horeb, and how he led his people through the Eed 
Sea, miraculously parted by " a strong east wind." The exodus 
(or flight) of the Jews from Egypt is placed by chronologists 
at about 1300 b.c. 

The Era of the Judges. — From the exodus (about 1300 
B.C.), for a period of two hundred years, the Hebrews were 
governed by men who did not call themselves kings, but exer- 
cised their authority by common consent as possessed of a 
divine right. It was a period of struggle ; for, after forty years 
of wandering in the wilderness, the Jews found that the land of 
Canaan, to which they had returned, was in the hands of 
powerful foes, who could be dislodged only by hard fighting. 
Philistines, Moabites, Midianites, and Ammonites, all had to 
be exterminated ; but great leaders, like Gideon, Jephtha, 
and Samson arose to do the work. The last of the rulers in 
this period was the prophet Samuel, who reformed the state 
and stirred the courage of the Jews against their enemies. 

The Era of the Monarchy. — The people now insisted on hav- 
ing a king. They wished a more compact administration as 
likely to make the state stronger and more successful in war. 
The kingdom continued undivided during the reigns of Saul, 
David, and Solomon (that is, from about 1090 to 975 b.c), and 
during these early years it reached the height of its glory ; but 
after Solomon's death the kingdom was divided, and never re- 
gained its former power. Saul was the first king. His reign 
was full of conflicts, and embittered by his envy at the growing 
popularity of David. Saul's death brought David to the throne ; 
and then followed the period of Israel's greatest power, for 
David extended his rule over the hostile tribes in the vicinity, 
and even as far as the Euphrates and the Red Sea. He made 
Jerusalem his ca.pital. He was by far the greatest of the kings, 
and he raised the Jewish state to a position of international 
importance, so that it seemed almost as if his people were 
to have a great political destiny as well as a religious mis- 
sion. 

Solomon's Reign, about 1015-975 B.C. — This was the most 



46 



GENERAL HISTORY 



splendid period in Jewish history. The magnificence of Solo- 
mon is i^roverbial. The kingdom whicli David had built up, 
Solomon brought to its highest power. He secured himself by 
alliances with Syria, Egypt, and Tyre. Hiram, the king of 
Tyre, was a fast friend of Solomon, as he had been of David, 
and the result of this alliance was greatly to advance the com- 
merce of the Jews in the Mediterranean and on the Red Sea. 
Tyrian sailors were often employed on Jewish vessels. By the 
acquisition of a port at the head of the Gulf of Elath the way 
for commerce was opened to the Indian 
Ocean. Jerusalem became a beautiful 
city, with a new wall, a magnificent palace, 
and, greatest of all, the famous Temple 
v/hich Solomon built on Mount Moriah. 

Yet the reign has its dark side. Solo- 
mon, whose wisdom is even more famous 
than his wealth, nevertheless managed to 
do his country a great deal of harm. He 
was a perfect type of the all-powerful 
Eastern ruler, — luxurious, lavish, care- 
less of the real welfare of his people. 
Heavy taxes were required to keep up the 
splendor of his court, and the resources 
exhausted. What was worse, the old strict exclusiveness, 
that had kept the faith of the Jews pure, was broken down, 
and religion was corrupted. He allowed the heathen to prac- 
tice idolatry in his kingdom, and even took part in heathen 
rites himself. 

The Divided Kingdom. — This dark side of the reign of Solo- 
mon was made apparent by the events that followed his death. 
Eevolt had broken out against him, and had been put down ; but 
his successor, Rehoboam, was less fortunate. The ten tribes 
north of Judah cut themselves loose, and set up an independ- 
ent kingdom, known as the kingdom of Israel, with the capi- 
tal at Samaria. The remaining tribes constituted the kingdom 
of Judah, with its capital at Jerusalem. The two kingdoms 




Seven-bkanched Candle- 
stick FROM THE Temple 

Pwclief on the Arch of Titus 
at Rome 

of the state were 





TPIE HEBREWS 47 

continued separate until the downfall of both, which might not 
have occurred if they had remained united against their 

foes. In both Israel and Judah 
this was a period of decline. The 
kings made alliances with the hea- 
then, and permitted idolatry, in spite 
of the warnings of the x^i'ophets. 
' -^ Israel was the first to fall. Sargon, 
the Assyrian king, captured Sama- 
ria, and carried off the inhabitants 
as captives, in 722 b.c, repeopling 
the country with his own subjects. 
The Israelites never returned, and 
what became of them is a matter 
of conjecture. Judah lasted for 
more than a century afterwards, till 

High Pkiest ^ 

586 B.C. In that year Nebuchad- 
nezzar, King of Babylonia, took Jerusalem, and bore the peo- 
ple away to Babylon, where they remained in exile during 
many years. The period of the Babylonian captivity closed 
when Cyrus the Great, having conquered Babylonia, 538 b.c, 
gave the Jews permission to return to their homes. 

Later History. — From the time of the Babylonian captivity 
the Jews ceased to exist as an independent nation. They were 
ruled successively by the Persians, the Syrian successors of 
Alexander the Great, the Ptol'emies of Egypt, and the Komans ; 
and though there was a brief interval of freedom, when they 
rose in successful revolt under the Maccabees against the Syrian 
rulers, their history is merged in that of other races. 

Summary. — The Jews did not develop a great national state. 
They were not great conquerors, and never approached the 
political power of the empires of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, 
and Persia. Nor did they add much to the world's knowledge 
of art or science. Their mission was to spread a higher form 
of religion than any other race had developed. Their whole 
history seems to tend in this direction. Had they conquered 



48 GENERAL HISTORY 

and annexed other lands, they would have felt to a greater 
degree the influence of other religions. Political ambitions, 
stimulated by success, might have distracted them from their 
single purpose of keeping their faith pure. On the other hand, 
defeat and tyranny never made them abandon it. 

SUMMARY 

The Jews a Semitic People. Tlieir Origin. Their Mission. The Exo- 
dus. Era of the Judges, about 1300-1100 b.c. Era of the Monarchy. 
Saul. David. Solomon's Reign. The Divided Kingdom. Decline 
of Power. Later History. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE PHOENICIANS 

Land and People. — The name Phoenicia is derived from 
a Greek word meaning 'palm,' and signifies 'the land of the 
palm.' It consisted of a narrow strip of fertile territory on 
the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, between the Lebanon 
Mountains and the sea. It was about 150 miles long, but 
only ten or fifteen miles wide ; and as the mountains shut it 
off from the interior, it was natural that its inhabitants should 
turn to the sea as the easier outlet for their commerce. The 
Phoenicians, therefore, became fishermen and sailors, and soon 
develope'd into the chief maritime nation among the ancients. 
They belonged to the Semitic race, being closely allied to the 
Hebrews, Arabs, and Babylonians. 

Antiquity. — They were known to the ancient Akkadians, 
the primitive inhabitants of Babylonia," and, according to tra- 
dition, came from the shores of the Persian Gulf. The exact 
dates of the founding of their cities, among which Tyre and 
Sidon were the chief, are not known, but they belong to a 
very remote period. It is said that the temple of Baal Mel- 



THE PHOENICIANS 49 

karth, the Phoenician Her'cules, was founded 2750 b.c. ; and it 
is recorded that the Egyptian king, Ramses II., visited their 
country, finding evidences of an advanced civilization. 

Early History. — The period of their greatest prosperity was 
from the twelfth to the seventh century b.c. During this time, 
however, they were frequently conquered by foreign nations. 
Egyptian monarchs forced them to pay tribute, and Assyrian 
kings several times overran their country. The Phoenicians 
were not, in fact, a military people. They were essentially 
traders, and loved peace. Moreover, there was no strong cen- 
tral government. Each city managed its own affairs, and was 
virtually independent, though one among them commonly en- 
joyed a supremacy over the rest. In the early part of this 
period this position of supremacy was held by Sidon, which 
became the first great colonizing city of antiquity. Her de- 
votion to trade, and love of the pursuits of peace, are alluded 
to in the Book of Judges, when, speaking of the people of Dan, 
it is said, " They dwelt careless, after the manner of the Zido- 
nians, quiet and secure." But Sidon soon gave place to the 
more powerful city of Tyre. 

Tyre. — The height of Tyrian power was reached in the tenth 
century b.c, when a king named Hiram ruled the city. Hiram 
was the friend of David and Solomon, with whom he entered into 
an alliance resulting in great advantages to both countries ; for, 
while Phoenician culture was introduced among the ruder Isra- 
elites, David's conquest of Edom opened the way for Phoenician 
commerce through the Red Sea. Under Hiram, Tyre was 
adorned and fortified, colonies were planted in distant lands, 
and manufactures and commerce flourished. For some years 
after his death the affairs of the city prospered. Sidon was 
brought under its sway, and a colony was founded in the interior 
01 Africa; but Assyrian conquests soon began to spread west- 
ward, and in 870 b.c. the kings of Tyre, Sidon, and two other 
Phoenician cities were obliged to pay tribute. 

Founding of Carthage. — Before the close of this century the 
Tyrians founded on the northern coast of Africa a colony 
Colby's gen. hist. — 4 



50 GENERAL HISTORY 

which was destined to survive and outshine the mother city. 
This was Carthage, which, according to tradition, was settled 
by fugitives from the tyranny of a Tyrian usurper named 
Pygma'lion. Greek and Eoman writers have confounded leg- 
end with history, and made the founding of Carthage the 
subject of a picturesque story.^ 

Later History. — The Phoenician cities continued to pay trib- 
ute to the Assyrians for many years. Occasionally they re- 
volted, but fresh invasions of the Assyrians brought them to 
terms. The invaders, however, were not always successful. 
Sargon was obliged to grant easy terms to Tyre before it would 
capitulate after one of these revolts, and Sennacherib was 
unable to take the city (701 b.c). Assur-bani-pal and also 
the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar were glad to buy 
its submission by favorable treaties. The maritime power of 
the Phoenicians made them useful allies to the Egyptians and 
the Persians, who successively exercised a supremacy over 
them. It is said that their refusal to attack Carthage made it 
impossible for the Persian king Cambyses to carry out his 
plans against that city. 

Nevertheless they gradually lost their commercial impor- 
tance. Wars and foreign domination weakened them at home, 
and in the sixth century b.c. the Greeks became formidable 
rivals in the planting of colonies. The Phoenician colony of 
Carthage inherited the greatness of the mother country, and 
built up an empire Avhich, as we shall see, rivaled that of Pome. 
The ancient Phoenician cities fell into decay ; and finally Tyre, 
the greatest of them, was conquered by Alexander the Great in 
332 B.C. Its citizens were massacred or sold into slavery, and 
its greatness departed forever. Phoenicia became a part of 
Alexander's empire, and later was included in the dominions 
of Pome. 

1 In Vergil's Aeneid, Carthage is said to have been founded by the beautiful 
Dido, whose husband, Sichae'us, the rightful ruler of Tyre, had been murdered 
^J Pygmalion (see Aeneid, Book IV.). It is thought that Greek and Roman 
writers had confounded the foundress of the city with the Phoenician goddess 
Astar'te, who was sometimes worshiped under the name of Dido. 



THE PHOENICIANS 51 

Colonies. — Besides Carthage, the greatest of their colonies, 
the Phoenicians made settlements in Crete, Rhodes, Cythe'ra, 
and other islands of the Grecian Archipelago, and even on the 
mainland of Greece. Farther westward they planted colonies 
on the coast of Africa, the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and 
Corsica, and, passing through the Strait of Gibraltar, founded 
Ga'des (Cadiz) in Spain. The city of Tarshish, so often men- 
tioned in the Bible as a place of great wealth and commercial 
activity, is also said to have been on the coast of Spain. It 
was a flourishing city in the time of Solomon, as appears from 
the passage in 2 Chron. ix. 21 : " For the king's ships went to 
Tarshish with the servants of Hiram : every three years once 
came the ships of Tarshish bringing gold, and silver, ivory, 
and apes, and jjeacocks." These colonies of the Phoenicians 
were active trading posts, exchanging the products of the new 
countries for the luxuries of the East. In founding them they 
entered upon a different policy from that practiced by either 
the Egyptians or the Assyrians, who sometimes conquered and 
annexed territory, or plundered or exacted tribute from its 
inhabitants, but did not plant colonies. The Phoenicians 
settled in the land, and traded with the natives. In so doing 
they rendered the latter a great service by spreading among 
them a higher civilization. 

Racial Character and Influence. — As a race, the Phoenicians 
lacked originality, but were skillful imitators, or rather adapters, 
of the ideas of other peoples. Thus, their art borrowed many 
of its forms from Babylonia, Egypt, and Assyria; and their 
science was an inheritance from neighboring races. But they 
did not merely imitate : they imparted a new character to what 
they borrowed, and shovv^ed a remarkable power of improving 
on their models. Their main strength lay in practical matters, 
such as the practice of industrial arts and the conduct of com- 
mercial enterprises. They were the most skillful artisans in 
the ancient world, as well as the most enterprising traders. In 
gem cutting, dyeing, and the manufacture of pottery, they were 
especially expert. The ' Tyrian purple,' a dye manufactured 



52 



GENERAL HISTORY 



from the murex, or purple-fish, was known throughout the 
civilized world, and the commercial prosperity of Tyre was at 
first largely due to its production. In commerce no race had 
ever before covered so wide a field. They brought tin from 
the island of Britain, precious metals from Spain, ivory and 
pearls from India. As a result of their commercial spirit and 
skill as colonizers, they became the dispensers of Asiatic civili- 
zation to Western nations. The Greeks especially felt their 
influence. 

Literature. — The Phoenicians were not a literary race, and 
only scanty fragments of their writings remain ; yet they are 
credited with having rendered literature an inestimable ser- 
vice by giving the Greeks their alphabet, which, through the 
Greeks, became the alphabet of the Western world. The alpha- 
bet of the Phoenicians was based on 
the old Egyptian hieroglyphics, but 
differed from the latter in being ex- 
clusively phonetic ; i.e. in employing 
each letter to indicate a distinct sound. 
The Greeks themselves said that a cer- 
tain fabulous personage named Cad- 
mus introduced sixteen letters into 
use in Greece, and that other letters 
were added by their own wise men. 
This, like the other stories relating to Cadmus, is a myth, but 
points to the fact, now generally admitted, that Phoenician 
colonists brought the alphabet into Greece. 

Religion. — Phoenician religion was gross in conception, and 
sensual in practice. The center of their worship was the sun 
god, but his many forms or manifestations each took on the 
character of a separate divinity. Baal was the name given to 
the deity in all his forms. The supreme god was Baal Samen 
('lord of heaven'); but especial worship was paid to another 
Baal, the cruel Mo'loch, called by the Jews the " abomination 
of the children of Ammon." Moloch delighted in the blood of 
human victims; and in the hope of appeasing him parents 



Anc. Anc, 
Phoon. Greek. Latin. Eng:. 


6< 


AA 


A4\ 


A 


^ 


^/^ 


P 


E 


7 


irn 


V? 


P 


^J 


<ll>^p 


RR 


R 


vV 


KS 


Si 


S 


Development of the 
Alphabet 



THE PHOENICIANS 53 

offered up their children for sacrifice, the cries of the victims 
and of their relatives being drowned by the noise of drums 
and musical instruments. 

There were several female divinities, the consorts of the 
male. Thus, Ash'toreth, known to the Greeks under the name 
of the goddess Astar'te, was identified with the moon, the con- 
sort of the sun god. She was worshiped with cruel and im- 
pure rites. Then there were many minor gods and goddesses 
associated with natural forces or inanimate objects, — Asherah, 
the goddess of fertility, the Baalim, that represented rivers, — 
and the gods of particular localities or cities. It is curious to 
note that several of the Greek gods were of Phoenician origin, 
while the Phoenicians themselves borrowed them from the 
P)abylonians or Chaldeans. Thus, the old Chaldean solar hero, 
with his many adventures, his great feats of strength, and his 
' twelve labors,' reappeared as Baal Melkarth, the god of Tyre, 
who in turn became the Hercules of Greek mythology. 

SUMMARY 

Geographical Situation of Phoenicia. The Phoenicians a Semitic People. 
The Period of their Greatest Prosperity from the Twelfth to the 
Seventh Century, b.c. Siclon at first Supreme. Tyre at the Height 
of its Power. Carthage. Later History of the Phoenicians. The 
Decline of their Power. Phoenician Colonies. Racial Character 
and Influence. Religion. 



CHAPTER VII 

CHINA AND INDIA 

I. China 

The Chinese are a Mongolian peo^^le of the Turanian race, 
occupying the eastern slopes of the tablelands of Central Asia. 
Their early annals are a matter of legend rather than his- 
tory, and authorities differ as to the date of the foundation of 
the empire. Some place it about 2800 b.c, and others about 
2200 B.C. This purely legendary period lasted till 1123 or 

1122 B.C., after which the records bear some traces of authentic 
history. Among the tales told of the earlier period is an 
account of a golden age, during which people led good and 
happy lives, and required little restraint by laws; and another 
legend refers to a great flood as occurring about 2200 b.c. In 

1123 or 1122 b.c. the Chow dynasty came to the throne in the 
person of Wu Wang, who was famous as a lawgiver, and in- 
troduced important changes in the political system, dividing 
up the kingdom into vassal states. Under his successors the 
vassal x)rinces gained power at the expense of the throne, and 
the state was greatly weakened by internal disorders ; but in 
255 B.C. a new line of rulers, the Tsin dynasty, put an end to 
this anarchy, and ruled with a firm hand. Members of this 
line held the throne till 206, and during this period work was 
begun on the " Great Wall," which was to guard the frontier 
against the barbarous nomads to the north. When completed, 
it was about fifteen hundred miles in length. The Han 
dynasty followed, and lasted till 263 a.d. This was a very 
flourishing period in Chinese history. The government was 
efficient, learning was revived, and the robber tribes on the 
borders were beaten back. 

Chinese Civilization. — The government was despotic in form ; 
but though the emperor had the power of life and death over 
his subjects, he was in some degree restrained by precedents 

54 



CHINA 55 

which were regarded as sacred. Three forms of religion were 
professed by the Chinese, — Confucianism, Taoism, and Bud- 
dhism. Of these the first two were native forms of faith, while 
the third was introduced from India. Confucianism is based 
on the teachings of Confucius (551-478 b.c), many of which 
show a high morality, and apply practically to the daily life 
of the people. The founder of Taoism was Laou-Tse, who was 
a few years older than Confucius. His teachings are more 




Chinese Temple 



mystical and speculative than the latter's, and have not entered 
so deeply into the social life and political system of the people. 
Some account of the doctrines of Buddhism will be given in 
succeeding paragraphs on India. It was introduced into China 
in the second century b.c. 

The Chinese civilization has been characterized by a peculiar 
exclusiveness and an undue reverence for tradition. Yet in 



56 GENERAL HISTORY 

the matter of inventions the people have shown great inge- 
nuity. Tlie arts of printing and of making gunpowder and 
the use of the compass are said to have been known to 
them centuries before they were understood by European 
nations. 



II. India 

Geography. — India occupies the great peninsuhi of southern 
Asia, stretching from the mountain region of the Himalayas 
southward into tlie Indian Ocean, by whose two arms — the 
Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea — it is bound^ed respec- 
tively on the east and on the west. On the north the lofty 
Himalayas slope down to plains of great extent, watered by 
the Indus, Ganges, and Narbudda rivers. To the south of 
these lies a hilly region, known as the Deccan. 

The People. — The earliest inhabitants of India were a dark- 
skinned people, of whom few traces remain. AVhat is known 
of them comes chiefly from the writings of their conquerors. 
These conquerors were of pure Aryan blood, and entered India 
from the northwest at some time previous to 2000 b.c. Their 
migration was a part of that movement of the Aryans which 
brought the Persians into western Asia, and the ancestors of 
Greeks and Romans into southern Europe. 

The Language. — These Aryan invaders of India, or Hindus, 
spoke the Sanskrit language, which is regarded as the oldest 

Aryan tongue, 

'^^ to that spoken by 

ftHTt ^cR^TrT^I II ^ « the original Ary- 

The First Stanza of the Rig Veda, in Sanskrit Characters ^^IS. feanskrit IS 

the language of 
their Vedas (vd'dd), or collections of sacred writings, of which 
the oldest was the Rig Veda (probably 2000 b.c), containing 
a large number of hymns to the gods, written during the period 
of warfare Avitli the natives 



ancip:nt INDIA 57 

The Conquered Race. — Six hundred years (2000-1400 b.c.) 
passed before the conquest was complete, for the natives were 
numerous and brave. It appears from the liig Veda that 
the invading race was far ahead of the natives in civilization. 
The latter were panic-stricken at the sight of the horses and 
chariots of the Hindus, against whose javelins, battle-axes, and 
swords they had only the rude weapons of savages with which 
to defend themselves. It was a conflict like that between the 
European settlers in America and the Indians, the Hindus 
feeling themselves to be a superior race. They too were white 
men, and the color line was sharply drawn. In fact, their 
word varna, meaning 'color,' came afterward to mean a 
' caste,' or a distinct social class, class distinctions being fur- 
ther developed and more rigidly observed among the later 
Hindus than among any other people in the world. 

Nature Worship. — The religion of this early period was a 
form of nature worship, the different natural elements or 
forces being personified as divine beings. Thus, there was 
the sky god, worshiped under various names, of which Indra, 
or the ' sky that rains,' occurs the oftenest, for in India the 
luxuriance of the crops was especially dependent upon the 
abundance of rain. In course of time Indra became their 
chief deity ; but there were many others, such as Agni («//'- 
nee), the fire god, Va'runa, the god of the waters and the night, 
Vayu (vah'yoo), the wind god, and U'shas, the goddess of dawn. 

Period of Expansion (1400-320 B.C.). — Having completed 
the conquest of the natives about 1400 b.c, the Hindus settled 
on the plains along the Ganges. They were divided into several 
tribes, and the half-mythical record of their wars and rivalries 
gives the earlier part of this period (1400-1000) the character 
of an heroic age like that of the legendary Greeks whom 
Homer described in the Iliad. Before the close of the fourth 
century B.C. they had occupied all the inhabitable lands of 
India. In the meanwhile, one of their states, Mag'adha 
(South Behar), grew in strength, and came to exercise control 
over some of the others, although it did not reach the height 



58 GENERAL HISTORY 

of its power till after the close of this period (320 B.C.). But 
the main interest of the period is not in wars and dynasties ; it 
is in the social and religious development of the people. Dur- 
ing this time the caste system became firmly fixed, and two 
forms of religion successively arose, — Brahmanism and Bud- 
dhism, — each differing widely from the simple nature worship 
described above. 

Caste. — From the time when the Hindus settled on the 
Ganges there Avas a marked change in the spirit of their reli- 
gion. It lost its simplicity, and laid more and more stress on 
forms and ceremonies. Worship was complicated by elaborate 
and minute regulations, determining, for example, the exact 
pronunciation of words, the proper time (calculated astronom- 
ically) for holding the ceremonies, and every movement of the 
worshiper during the service. Such an elaborate system 
required the attention of a special class ; and the Brah'mans or 
priests, who understood its mysteries, came to hold a place 
apart from other men, and to be viewed with peculiar rever- 
ence. The women of priestly families were forbidden to 
marry outside of their class, and as time passed the line that 
separated the priests from other members of society became 
more distinct. They became a separate caste. 

The next caste below the Brahmans was that of the Kshat'- 
riyas or warriors, who in turn were superior to the third caste, 
composed of the Vaisyas (vl'shyd) or farmers. Below the 
farmers was a still lower order in the social scale, the Su'dras 
or serfs, a despised class, probably descendants of the con- 
quered aborigines; and lowest of all were the Pari'ahs, who 
were mere outcasts. 

In European countries there have been social distinctions 
corresponding to these Indian castes, but they have not been 
so strictly observed. There has always been some intermar- 
riage between the classes. In India the caste system was 
carried too far, and proved hurtful. There was great inequal- 
ity in the laws. A Brahman paid a far lighter penalty for 
an offense than was imposed upon a Sudra. The latter could 



ANCIENT INDIA 59 

be put to death for several classes of offenses, but a Brahman 
could never suffer capital punishment under the law. More- 
over, industrial progress was checked by a rule that caused 
all who worked at a trade or tilled the soil to be regarded as 
degraded. A^aisyas and Sudras, however industrious they 
might be, could never gain admittance to either of the higher 
orders. 

Brahmanism. — ^ The old nature worship, in which natural 
forces were personihed as different gods, gave place, in the 
course of time, to a belief in a single god as the cause and 
mover of all natural forces. Brah'ma was the name of this 
divine being. He was the creator of all things, but he was 
not viewed apart from what he created. He was thought to 
be in all his creatures, which have sprung from him, and will 
return to him. This doctrine is embodied in the books of in- 
struction called Upanishads', which are among the most remark- 
able works of antiquity. According to the Upanishads, the 
great truth of religion was revealed to a simple and illiterate 
boy, who spent his days alone, tending cattle. This truth was 
that " the four quarters, and the earth, the sky, the heavens 
beyond, and the ocean, and the sun, the moon, the lightning, 
and the fire, and the organs and minds of living beings, — yea, 
the whole universe, is God." 

Another remarkable feature of Brahmanism was the doc- 
trine of the transmigration of souls, — the idea that the soul, 
springing from Brahma, passes through various bodies, until 
finally, having freed itself from all imperfections, it goes back 
to Brahma again. The great aim of existence was to reach 
this final state, and mingle with God. 

Buddhism. — Brahmanism passed through the experience 
common to many forms of religion, losing in the course of 
time its simplicity and earnestness, and requiring reformers 
to remind believers of its essential truths. Of these reformers 
the greatest was Prince Gautama (Gotv'tama), commonly known 
as the Buddha {BotuVda), or 'the Enlightened,' whose reforms 
wore of such a radical nature as virtually to found a new 



60 



GENERAL HISTORY 



religion. Yet he did not quarrel with the old, but merely 
interpreted it anew, and gave it a more practical character. 
Buddha was born about the middle of the sixth century b.c. 
He was a member of a royal house, but left his home, his 
wife, and newborn child in order to find religious peace and 

the way to salvation. He 
sought truth from the 
Brahmans in vain, and 
spent seven years in re- 
ligious meditation. Final- 
ly he learned the truth 
that he had been seeking. 
It was summed up in the 
two ideas of self-culture 
and universal love. About 
522 B.C. he proclaimed his 
creed at Bena'res. As to 
the details of worship, he 
left the ancient Brahman- 
ism unchanged; but he 
taught that every act in 
this life bears its fruit in 
the next. Every soul 
passes through successive lives or reincarnations. Its condi- 
tion during one life is the result of what- it has done in a 
previous state. The aim of life is the attainment of Nirvana 
(Neervah'na), — a sinless state of existence, to reach which 
constant self-culture is required. Four truths were taught es- 
pecially : first, that all life is suffering ; second, that this suf- 
ering is caused by the desire to live ; third, that the suffering 
ceases with the cessation of this desire; fourth, that this 
salvation can be found by following the path of duty. A very 
high morality was preached, including the duties of chastity, 
patience, mercy, fortitude, and kindness to all men. 

Spread of Buddhism. — Buddha, after his death, was worshiped 
as a divine being. His disciples carried the faith throughout 




Statue of Buddha, Japan 



ANCIENT INDIA 61 

India, and thence it spread to China in the second century 
B.C., over Burniah 450 a.d., and over Siam and Java at later 
dates. In 377 b.c. there was a division among the Buddhists. 
The Northern Buddhists (i.e. those of China, Thibet, Nepal, 
and Japan) profess different doctrines from the Buddhists of 
Ceylon. In India Buddhism and Brahmanism existed side by 
side, and the modern faith known as Hinduism is a combina- 
tion of both. 

Greek Conquest of India. — India was first brought into con- 
tact with Europeans by the conquest of Alexander the Great 
in 327 B.C. Alexander found northern India divided into little 
kingdoms, many of which were less hostile to the conqueror 
than to one another. He reached the Hydas'pes or Jhe'lum 
River without fighting a battle, and finally passed down the 
River Indus to its mouth, having won several victories over 
the brave but ill-disciplined Hindus. His conquest comprised 
only northern India, which after his death fell to the share of 
Seleu'cus Nika'tor, the founder of the Syrian kingdom. 

Alexander founded cities in the conquered country, and 
Greek influence is traceable in Hindu art for many years after- 
wards. But the most important result of the conquest was in 
giving us the first European account of India. This was the 
narrative of Megas'thenes, a Greek ambassador at the court of 
Chan'dragup'ta, an Indian prince who had succeeded in build- 
ing up an empire in northern India after Alexander's departure. 
Megasthenes' account of Indian society in 300 b.c. shows it 
to have been in essential points about what it is at the present 
time. He notices the caste system and the division of the 
country into over a hundred kingdoms. He speaks with ad- 
miration of the purity of the women and the courage of the 
men. The people were remarkably law-abiding and truthful. 

Arts. — There are many beautiful remains of ancient archi- 
tecture in India, dating from the Buddhist period, and includ- 
ing churches, monasteries, and high stone structures (known 
as topes) built on sacred spots, to which pilgrimages were 
made. Buddhist churches and monasteries were often grot- 



62 



GENERAL HISTORY 



toes cut in the rock, and were frequently elaborately sculptured. 
Great numbers of these structures are found in the Presidency 
of Bombay, where rocks fitted for excavation abound. The 
rock-hewn temples of Ello'ra, belonging to the eighth or ninth 




The Taj Mahal, an Indian Tomb 

century, are the most remarkable of these. A pit measuring 
270 feet by 150 feet is cut in the solid rock, and in the midst 
of it stands a temple with a tower 90 feet high. 

Commerce. — Tlie commerce of India attracted many traders. 
Phoenician caravans and ships carried the precious stones, 
gold, ivory, spices, and silks of India to the West. In later 
times the wealth of India played an important part in 
history by attracting the trade of the Italian cities. This 
trade, during the fourteenth and greater part of the fifteenth 
centuries, passed overland through Arabia and Asia Minor; 
but when the Portuguese, at the close of the fifteenth cen- 
tury, discovered the route around tlie Cape of Good Hope, the 
commerce of the Indies was carried on by sea, and passed 
from under the control of the Italian cities into the hands of 



ANCIENT INDIA 63 

the nations on the Atlantic coast. The later history of India, 
however, has its main interest in its connection with Portngal, 
Holland, and England, and will be discussed in the chapters 
on the modern history of those nations. 

SUMMARY 

China. — The Race. —Legendary Period. — Dynasties. — Chinese Civili- 
zation : Government. Religions. Inventions. 

India. — Geography. — The People: The Natives. The Aryan Conquer- 
ors. Period of Expansion (1400-320 b.c). The Rise of Magadha. 
— Caste: Brahmans. Kshatriyas. Vaisyas. Sudras. — Brahman- 
ism: Origin. Characteristic Features. — Buddhism: Buddha. Doc- 
trines. Spread of Buddhism. — Greek Conquest, 327 b.c. : Alexander 
the Great's Invasion. Effects of the Greek Conquest. — Arts. — 
Commerce. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE MEDES AND THE PERSIANS 

Race. — The Medes and the Persians were kindred tribes be- 
longing to the Aryan division of races. At a very early date 
they had come westward from Bactria, and when first heard of 
in history were occupying the western part of the table-land of 
Iran and the shores of the Persian Gulf. The Medes, who 
lived in the more northerly of these regions, were the first to 
emerge from barbarism and build up an empire. 

The Median Kingdom. — The earliest mention of the Medes was 
in 840 n.o., when they appear to have been one of the subject 
peoples of the Assyrian king Shalmane'ser XL As the power 
of Assyria declined, that of Media increased, until a Median 
prince named Cyax'ares destroyed the Assyrian Empire in 
606 B.C. Further conquests by this ruler raised Media to the 
first rank as an Asiatic power ; Lydia on the west and the 
restored Babylonian kingdom on the south being her only 
rivals. The river Halys became the boundary between his 
em]3ire and Lydia on the west, and he made the Persian 
tribes on the south his subjects ; but the Median supremacy 
lasted only a few years. Asty'ages, the weak successor of 
Cyaxares, could not hold his kingdom against a powerful rival 
who had arisen. This was Cyrus the Great, king of the 
Persians. 

Cyrus the Great. — While Astyages was ruling over Media, 
the Persians, under their king, Camby'ses, were in a position 
of dependence, and paid tribute to the Median king; but with 
the accession of Cyrus to the Persian throne all this was 
changed. The early life of Cyrus, like that of many other 
heroes of antiquity, is very obscure. There is a story that 

04 



THE MEDES AND THE PERSIANS 6b 

Astyages, the Median king, having dreamed that Cyrus was 
destined to conquer all of Asia, gave him to a courtier with 
orders to have him killed. The courtier handed him over to a 
shepherd, who agreed to expose him on the mountains. The 
shepherd pretended that he had done so, but spared the life of 
the young Cyrus, and brought him up as his own child. The 
king afterwards found this out, and took a barbarous revenge 
on the courtier, killing the latter's child, and serving him up to 
his father as food. But after a while the courtier's turn came 
for revenge. A rebellion having broken out, he sent for Cyrus 
to head the movement ; and the result was the overthrow of 
Astyages, and the elevation of Cyrus to the throne. This story 
is probably a later invention ; all that we know with certainty 
is that Cyrus triumphed over the Median Astyages, and made 
himself the ruler of Medes as well as Persians. 

The Conquests of Cyrus. — The Median kingdom was over- 
thrown in 557 B.C. There now remained two great rivals to 
the new kingdom, namely, Lydia and Babylonia. Cyrus first 
turned against Croesus, King of Lydia, and in a single cam- 
paign captured Sardis, the Lydian capital, and made Croesus 
his prisoner. A tradition relates that when Cyrus was about 
to put Croesus to death, the captive king was heard to mutter 
several times the name of Solon, ami, on being asked what 
he meant by it, replied that Solon i the Greek sage, had been 
the only man who refused to call him fortunate, saying that 
no man should be called happy before his death, for the reason 
that no one knov.^s what evils may befall him. Cyrus, accord- 
ing to the legend, thereupon spared the life of Croesus, and re- 
ceived him into his confidence. This story also rests on a 
slender basis of fact, but is significant as illustrating the leni- 
ency which the Persians showed their captives at a time when 
prisoners were almost invariably put to death and often bar- 
barously tortured. 

With the conquest of the Greek colonies on the Aegean, west- 
ern Asia Minor was added to the Persian Empire. Next came 
the fall of Babylon, about 538 e.g., which led to the important 
Colby's gen. hist. — 5 



66 GENERAL HISTORY 

result of enabling the Jewish exiles to return to Jerusalem. 
Cyrus died in 529 b.c. after having raised the Persian kingdom 
from the position of a tributary state to that of the greatest 
imperial power in Asia. His sway extended from the Medi- 
terranean shore to the river Jaxartes, and from the Indus to 
the Hellespont. He was by far the greatest of the Persian 
monarchs, and his conquests were not disgraced by cruelty. 

Cambyses (529-522 B.C.). — In the reign of Cambyses, son of 
Cyrus, occurred the conquest of Egypt. This prince had some- 
thing of his father's warlike character, but lacked his ability and 
his clemency. Angered, it is said, by a deception practiced on 
him by the Egyptian king, he invaded the latter's territory and 
captured Memphis. Here the conqueror is said to have be- 
haved with such wanton cruelty as to give color to the belief 
that he was insane. He assumed the title and powers of an 
Egyptian king, but did not succeed in subduing the entire 
country. His long absence permitted political and religious 
revolts at home. The different races which Cyrus had bound 
together in his empire now tried to regain their independence. 
Failing to subdue the revolt, Cambyses committed suicide. 

Darius Hystaspes (521-485 B.C.). — A usurper seized the king- 
dom on the death of Cambyses; but Dari'us, the rightful heir, 
killed him and gained tho. throne. Darius was the great organ- 
izer of the Persian Empivt^. He divided the country up into 
more than twenty provinces or satrapies, at the head of each of 
which was a governor or satrap, bound to do the bidding of the 
king. The government was a perfect despotism, the king hav- 
ing power of life and death over all his subjects. The govern- 
ment has been compared to that of Turkey to-day, — a system 
in which the officers owe all their authority to a ruler who 
is responsible to no one for the use of his power. Vast 
wealth poured into the imperial treasury from the provinces; 
and the great king was able to fit out military expeditions 
against Scythians, Thracians, and Greeks. The conflict with 
the Greeks, however, and the story of Mar'athon, where Athe- 
nian valor drove back the greatly superior forces of the Per- 



THE MEDES AND THE PERSIANS 



67 



•>1 



sians, fall more properly within the scope of Greek history. 
The main interest of Persian history from this time on lies in 

its relation to Grecian affairs, and 

will be discussed in connection | 
with them. 

Religion. — The religion of the 
Medes and Persians was one of the 
highest and purest forms of faith > 
found among ancient peoples. At 
tirst, like most savage tribes, they 
worshiped natural objects and nat- 
ural forces. Some of these forces 
were regarded as the manifestation 
of good spirits, and others of evil 
demons; and but of this grew the 
idea of a perpetual conflict between 
good and evil in the universe. 

Zoroastrianism. — Long before 
their authentic history begins, a 
Bactrian priest named Zarathush- 
tra or Zoroas'ter, who is supposed 
to have lived about 650 b.c, re- 
duced this crude nature worship 
to definite form. The chief fea- 
ture of Zoroastrianism, as the Per- 
sian religion is called, is the belief 
in a god" of light (the creator of all that is good) and a god of 
darkness (the founder and promoter of all that is evil). The 
former they termed Or'muzd, and the latter Ah'riman. Each 
was at the head of a host of minor gods ; those under Ormuzd 
being the "undying and well-doing ones," while those who 
aided Ahriman were the gods of evil thoughts, of death, sick- 
ness, and decay. It was thought that the world would last 
12,000 years, after which it would end in winter or storm. 
Then would come a period of eternal spring, when the earth 
would be repeopled by the good, whose bodies would rise from 



^|. 






Darius 

From an ancient relief. Above, 
tlie symbol of Ormuzd 



68 GENERAL HISTORY 

the dead. Certain animals and natural objects were regarded 
as sacred. Thus, fire was looked upon as a manifestation of 
Ormuzd, and hence worshiped ; and among animals the dog was 
reverenced. The sacred writings were gathered in a work 
called the Avesta, written in the Zend language, which is 
thought to be the language of ancient Bactria. 

The Magi. — Such was the real essence of the Persian belief. 
There is evidence to prove that among the more enlightened 
worshipers there prevailed a belief in pure monotheism, that 
is, in one eternal Spirit above both Ormuzd and Ahriman : but 
the creed differed at different times, and was corrupted by the 
priestly class. The members of this class were called Ma'gi. 
Their origin is uncertain, but they seem early to have become 
the directors of worshij^, and to have won a high place in the 
councils of the king. Darius accused them of corrupting the 
ancient faith, and it is probable that they deprived it of its 
real spirit by laying too much stress on forms and ceremonies. 
They were astrologers as well as priests, and are especially 
associated with the worship of fire, although their veneration 
was by no means confined to that element. Our term 'magic' 
is derived from their name, in allusion to the arts which they 
practiced. 

Manners. — The Persians had an especial reverence for the 
truth. Lying, stealing, deception of any kind, were held in 
detestation. But if truthfulness was a Persian virtue, drunk- 
enness was to the same extent a Persian vice, for the too free 
use of wine characterized society from the court down. An- 
other vice was the cringing spirit they often showed toward 
their rulers, and their habit of flattery, the outcome of the 
extreme despotism of their government. The punishments 
which this government meted out to offenders were often very 
cruel, even for slight crimes. Xen'ophon, the G-reek historian, 
writing in the early jj^rt of the fourth century, says it was a 
common thing to see men lacking a foot, or an arm, or an eye, 
as a result of punishment inflicted for some offense. Yet toward 
their prisoners of war the Persians showed remarkable kindness. 



THE MEDES AND THE PERSIANS 69 

As to their occupations, they were not a commercial people, but 
confined themselves chiefly to agriculture. In fact, a regard 
for agricultural pursuits was taught by their religion. Tlieir 
dress was that of a cold climate. They wore boots, stockings, 
trousers, and cloaks, which, in the case of the nobility, were 
often of very costly material and bright colors. In their later 
days they were not good soldiers. They depended on force 
of numbers and strategy rather than valor, and it was usual 
for commanders to flog their troops into battle. A lively, quick- 
witted people, they lacked stability of purpose and the capacity 
for sustained and vigorous action. Polygamy was practiced 
among them. 

Art and Literature. — In art the Persians were borrowers 
from the Babylonians and Assyrians. Their architecture 
was heavy, severe, and formal, but diversified by graceful 
columns. Like the Babylonians, they colored the walls and 
ceilings of their palaces. In their figures there is the same 
thickness of arms and legs that marks the Babylonian bas- 
reliefs, and the winged bulls that appear so frequently in 
Assyrian architecture occur often in the Persian ornamenta- 
tion. The best type of Persian architecture that survives is 
found in the ruins of Persep'olis, burned by Alexander the 
Great. Of their literature, all that remains is a portion of the 
Avesta. They were not a literary people, and they contributed 
nothing to science. 

SUMMARY 

Medes and Persians. — The Race. — Median Kingdom: Early De- 
pendence on Assyria, 840 b.c. Conquests under Cyaxares. Asty- 
ages.— Persia under Cyrus the Great (died 529 b.c.) : Early Life of 
Cyrus. His Accession to the Throne. Conquests. — Cambyses (529- 
522 B.C.): Conquest of Egypt. Death of Cambyses. — Darius 
Hystaspes (521-485 b.c): Administration. Military Expeditions. 
Revolt of the Greeks. — Civilization of the Persians : Religion. The 
Magi. Manners. Art and Literature. 




ADRIATIC 



70 



GREECE 



3>«Kc 



CHAPTER IX 



THE PREHISTORIC AGE 



Geography. — The Greeks called their land Hellas and them- 
selves Helle'nes, our words G-reece and Greek being derived 
from the Latin names of the land and its people. Greece, or 
Hellas proper, is the southern part of the most easterly of 
tlie three peninsulas that 
project southward into 
the Mediterranean Sea. 
The C a m b u n i a n and 
Oly m pus m o u n t a i n s 
bound it on the north. 
It is very irregular in 
shape, but may be rough- 
ly divided into three 
parts. The northern di- 
vision consists of Epi'rus 
and Thes'saly, south of 
which the Ambracian 
and Malian Gulfs indent 
the land on either sido, 
reducing the width of the 
peninsula to sixty - live 
miles. The middle divi- 
sion, or central Greece, is south of this point, where the 
land widens again. Below central Greece two other gulfs, 
the Saron'ic on the east and the Corinthian on the 
west, cut far into the country, leaving only the narrov\^ 

71 



B 


I^H 


1 




■ 




^' - ' ^^H 


1 






1 


lf ^i'^. ^^^^1 


■ 




^■H 



Pallas Athene 



72 GENERAL HISTORY 

strip called the Isthmus of Corinth between. This isthmus, 
which is about three and a half miles across, joins central 
Greece with the third or southern division, called the Pelopon- 
ne'sus (island of Pelops) or in modern times More'a (mulberry 
leaf). The surface of Greece is as irregular as its outline. 
Ridges of limestone mountains traverse the country in all 
directions, making it a land of hills and valleys and small 
plains. In Greece thsre is no point from which the moun- 
tains can not be seen. 

Effect of Physical Features of Greece on the People. — The long 
and irregular coast line of Greece and the subdivision of its 
surface by mountain ranges have had an important influence on 
the history of its inhabitants. With an area about that of our 
state of Maine and less than that of Scotland, Greece, owing 
to its numerous bays, gulfs, and inlets, has a coast line equal in 
length to that of Spain and Portugal together. These indenta- 
tions brought the sea within easy reach of the dwellers in 
almost every part of the country. The effect of this was to 
make the water the easiest means of communication between 
the different parts of Greece, and so accustom them to sea voy- 
ages. Moreover, the waters that surround the peninsula are 
studded with islands, especially on the east, where the islands 
of the Aege'an Sea are so near one another that a ship can 
pass from Greece to Asia Minor without ever losing sight of 
land. It is not strange, therefore, that the Greeks were from 
very early times a race of sailors, and that they came in time 
to possess in the ancient world the same sort of maritime 
supremacy as that enjoyed later by the Venetians, the Dutch, 
and the English. 

The division of the land by mountain ridges largely explains 
another characteristic feature of Greek life; namely, the lack of 
political unity among the people. In spite of the bond of race, 
the ancient Greeks did not succeed in founding a national state, 
but lived in independent communities — a condition which the 
existence of these natural barriers of hills or mountains tended 
to produce. 



THE PREHISTORIC AGE 73 

Race. — 111 prehistoric times the land of Greece was occupied 
by people to whom the Greeks gave the name 'Pelas'gi.' Their 
origin is doubtful, but by some of the Greek historians they 
were thought to be the ancestors of the Greeks themselves. 
They lived in villages, tilled the soil, kept flocks and herds, 
and left behind them remains of massive walls built of unhewn 
stone, but they never passed beyond a rude stage of life, or 
showed anything of the genius of the later inhabitants. If 
they were not the ancestors of the Greeks, they were, like the 
latter, of Aryan blood. It is probable that at some time previous 
to 2000 B.C., the Aryans had reached southern Europe and then 
divided into two swarms, of which one settled in Greece, be- 
coming the ancestors of Pelasgi and Greeks, and the other 
passed further westward and peopled Italy. 

The Hellenes, or Greeks proper, traced their descent from 
a mythical ancestor, Hellen, a native of Thessaly, and from 
his equally mythical sons, whose names — -Dorus, Ion, Ae'olus, 
and Achae'us, — are preserved in the names of the four chief 
divisions of the Hellenes, the Dorians, lonians, Aeolians, and 
Achaeans. Of these the Achaeans were at first the most pow- 
erful. They and the Aeolians were scattered throughout the 
peninsula, while the lonians occupied the eastern coast and 
islands, and the Dorians, the latest comers, occupied the moun- 
tains in the north. This disposition of the tribes, however, 
is largely a matter of conjecture ; for it belongs to the pre- 
historic period for the account of which we have to rely on 
traditions. Authentic history begins with the migration of 
these tribes into the regions which they occupied permanently. 

Legendary Period The myths, or stories with which the 

Greeks filled up the dark period befoi;^ their genuine history 
began, are not only interesting in themselves, but have a value 
for the light they throw on the early life of the people. It 
was called the Heroic Age, from the fact that so many of the 
legends deal with the exploits of heroes — founders of cities, 
lawgivers, and leaders, whose improbable adventures and 
superhuman deeds were the creation of their imaginative 



74 



GENERAL HISTORY 



descendants. Yet the tales abont them often point to some 
historical fact. Thus Athens, Thebes, and Argos all claimed 
as their founders foreign heroes who came into Greece from the 
East. In Athens a mass of legends gather about the dynasty 
of Ce'crops, the supposed founder of the city, who came from 
abroad, and The'seus, the last of this mythical line of foreign 
rulers, was the national hero of the Athenian state. In Thebes 
it was the equally mythical Cadmus who taught the peoj)le the 
art of mining, and how to read and write ; and in Argos the 
hero Dan'aiis was thought to have founded a line of kings 
who made the city the greatest state in the Peloponnesus. 

Probably the element of truth in all these stories is that 
the rude natives of Greece learned much from the enterpri- 
sing and civilized Phoenicians, who frequented the coasts in 
the course of trade, founded trading stations on the islands 
and capes, and opened up mines in the country. The story 
of Cadmus points to the fact that the Greeks borrowed their 
al})habet from the Phoenicians. 

The Homeric Poems. — Of all the writings that describe this 
Heroic Age, the most important are the two great narrative 

poems, — the IViad and the Od'yssey, 
— attributed to Homer. For many 
years scholars have disputed about 
the authorship of these poems, some 
denying that they were written by 
Homer, and holding that they were 
the work of many minds ; others see- 
ing in them a unity of style and har- 
mony of treatment that mark them as 
the products of a single fancy. The 
latter view is the more generally ac- 
cepted, yet it seems strange that Ave 
know so little of the author. The 
Greeks themselves, who never qtiestioned the identity of 
Homer, were ignorant of the facts of his life, and joked 
about the number of cities that claimed to be his birth- 




THE PREHISTORIC AGE 75 

place. Two facts, however, are clear: the poems are of great 
antiquity, and their author describes very faithfully the times in 
which he lived, supplying materials from which historians have 
been able to construct a picture of primitive Greek society. 

The Iliad and the Odyssey are two long epic poems dealing 
with a war against the ancient city of Troy (Ilium) in Asia 
Minor, and the events which resulted from the conflict. The 
first describes the siege of Troy by the Greeks in revenge for 
an injury inflicted on one of their kings, Menela'us, whose 
wife Helen, the fairest woman in all Greece, had been stolen 
away by a Trojan prince 
named Paris while a 
guest in the house of her 
husband. Agamem'non, ^ j]v_^-^.^^,^ — ^ p>^ 

" ' - \^41 N__l^ '. J, -T^ n i \£ 




king of Mycenae and ^C^ J_ JJ^^flfcN M/^^ 
brother of Menela'us, -\I>;'"\'rl'^Vl'j\'i:i^S:> 



was the leader of all the '-^-CTf 7 ' _.X^/' 



-^ 



t ;">-♦ 



Gate of Mycenae, the City of Agamemnon 



Greeks, by virtue of his >k^v ^^' — * — ^^'"^ 

royal authority over the z"^*-^' '^- \ 

Peloponnesus ; but the ^^& 
bravest and most power- 
ful chieftain, without 
whom the Greeks could 
do nothing, was Achil'les. It was ten years before the Greeks 
captured the city, their victory being delayed by the refusal 
of Achilles to fight in consequence of a quarrel with Agamem- 
non, and success came finally only through the stratagem of 
the wooden horse in which Greek warriors were concealed and 
borne by the unsuspecting Trojans into the heart of the city. 
Such is the bare outline of the story. The poem fills it in 
with stirring accounts of battles and adventures, and with a 
vivid description of the armies engaged. 

The Odyssey tells the adventures of Odys'seus, or Ulys'ses, 
of Ithaca, who, after fighting in the Trojan War, was carried 
out of his course by a storm on his return voyage, and reached 
his home only after many years of wandering. 



76 GENERAL HISTORY 

Greek Society in the Heroic Age. — The form of government 
that prevailed during the period described by Homer was the 
patriarchal monarchy, in which the king was regarded as the 
father of the tribe. He was not only its leader in war and 
the judge of disputes between its members in times of peace, 
but he was the chief priest of the tribe, their s^^okesman and 
agent in dealings with the gods. Yet he was not altogether 
without restraints, for his power depended on the general will, 
and if his government was unjust or his conduct on the field 
of battle cowardly or base, he was liable to dethronement. 

Below him were the nobles, who were the only class having 
political rights. They were the advisers of the king, who, 
however, was not always bound to act upon their advice. The 
great mass of the j)eople were freemen owning small parcels of 
land, but there was also a landless class who worked the land 
of others for hire. There were .some slaves, but they never 
became numerous, nor do they seem to have been harshly 
treated. 

Society, thus constituted, had the virtues and the vices of a 
rude but vigorous age. The spirit was aristocratic, and kings 
and nobles looked down upon the common people ; yet there 
was little state or display. Manual labor Avas not, as in later 
times, regarded as a sign of degradation. Kings were not 
above working in the fields, and queens attended in person to 
the details of domestic management. Amusements were sim- 
ple and healthful. Athletic games were common as in later 
Greece. Women were respected and polygamy was not prac- 
ticed. The duties of hospitality were strictly observed. The 
stranger was received kindly, and to harm a suppliaiit was 
reckoned the worst of crimes. 

On the other hand, it was a period of lawlessness. Piracy 
flourished, and plundering a weaker neighbor was regarded as 
a legitimate means of enrichment. Murder was common, and 
went unpunished unless the relatives of the victims chanced 
to demand reparation, in which case the matter was usually 
settled by a money payment. TJien, too, the conduct of war 



THE FIRST PERIOD OF GREEK HISTORY 77 

was barbarous. There was no thought of sparing the lives of 
prisoners, unless, perhaps, they could be made useful ;is slaves. 
Human sacrifices were sometimes offered to the gods. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 
Geography of Greece. — Effects of Physical Features on the People: 
(1) Seafaring Tendencies. (2) Local Independence, The Race. 
The Pelasgi. The Hellenes, or Greeks Proper. — Chief Divisions : 
Dorians, lonians, Aeolians, and Achaeans. — The Legendary Period : 
The Heroic Age. — The Homeric Poems : The Iliad and the Odj/ssey. 
— Greek Society in the Heroic Age : The King. The Nobles. The 
People. Life and Manners. 



CHAPTER X 

THE FIRST PERIOD OF GREEK HISTORY 

Division into Periods. — In the previous chapter an outline 
has been given of the prehistoric age of Greece. Greek his- 
tory proper may be divided into three periods. The first 
extends to about 500 b.c, and includes the early development 
of the principal states of Greece. The second is the most 
flourishing period of Greek history, from 500 b.c. to 338 b.c. 
The third period (338-146 b.c.) was an age of decline, during 
which the separate Greek states lost their independence, first 
falling under the power of Macedonia and finally under that 
of Home. 

The Migrations. — The dividing line between the legendary 
period and the beginning of authentic history is formed by 
several important migrations of Greek tribes, which resulted 
in great changes in the political map of Greece. The Thes- 
salians, a savage tribe of northern mountaineers, came down 
and settled in the plains of Thessaly, driving out all who 
barred the way. The Dorians, Aetolians, and Boeo'tians were 
thus pushed southward and forced to find new homes for 
themselves. The Boeotians went no further than central 
Greece, founding there the state of Boeotia, which adjoined 



78 GENERAL HISTORY 

the Ionian state of Attica. Aetolians and Dorians went down 
into the Peloponnesus, where the former seized upon the 
region in the northwest and the latter occupied all the southern 
portions. These movements threw all Greece into confusion. 
Up to this time the dominant race of Greece was the Achaeans, 
and the Dorians were unknown. Henceforth the Achaeans 
occupied merely a strip of the coast in the northern part of the 
Peloponnesus, while the Dorians gradually rose to a leading 
position among the tribes. 

But the effect of these movements was not merely to change 
the position and relations of the tribes in the mainland of 
Greece. The displaced populations sought new lands across 
the sea, founding three great groups of settlements on the 
coast of Asia Minor and colonizing the islands of the Aege'an 
together with Cyprus and Crete. The first of these Greek 
colonies in Asia Minor was founded by the Aeolians, who were 
fugitives of various tribes dislodged by the Dorian invasion. 
Theirs was the most northerly group of colonies, stretching 
along the coast from the Hellespont to the Bay of Smyrna. 
The settlements to the south of the Aeolian colonies were 
formed mainly by Ionian fugitives, and to the south of these 
were the colonies of the Dorians, for the conquerors them- 
selves had found the limits of their new territories in Greece 
too narrow, and had passed over into Asia Minor. 

The date of these movements is obscure. We only know 
that at their close the tribes were settled in the places that 
they continued permanently to occupy. Subsequent history 
deals with their development and mutual relations. The two 
chief states of Greece were Athens and Sparta, and about them 
the main interest centers. Athens did not come into promi- 
nence till many years after the migrations. It was not much 
affected by these movements, and still retained its old Ionian 
population. Sparta, however, was the chief city of the Dorian 
immigrants, and, having a brave, aggressive population, gradu- 
ally fought its way to the position of the ruling city in the 
Peloponnesus. 



CHAPTER XI 

SPARTA 

Rise of Sparta. — Of the three states founded by the Dorians 
in the Peloponnesus, namely, Sparta, Messenia, and Argos, 
Argos was the first to make herself supreme. During her 
ascendency Sparta and Messenia were fighting with each other, 
and the former state found it hard to hold her own ; for, owing 
to her bad system of government, she was weakened by mis- 
rule and anarchy. Finally, however, Sparta triumphed over 
both her rivals. This was due to a radical change in her form 
of government — to the establishment of a most peculiar sys- 
tem of laws and social customs. 

Lycurgus. — This system was ascribed by the Greeks to a 
Spartan sage named Lycur'gus, who lived about 800 B.C. Find- 
ing the country distracted by the feuds of kings and the law- 
lessness of the people, he proposed a new scheme of government. 
His object was to make Sparta a great military power. To 
accomplish this, he introduced a system of the strictest mili- 
tary discipline. It made no difference whether the state was 
at war or at peace, this discipline was never to be relaxed. 
At the same time stability was insured in the government by 
the introduction of new administrative officers with clearly 
defined powers. Not all the peculiar characteristics of the 
Spartan system were the work of Lycurgus, but enough was 
his to give him a just title to the credit of being its founder. 

Constitution of Sparta. — The Spartan state was under the 
joint government of two kings who were the absolute chiefs in 
time of war, the high priests of the people and the hereditary 
chief magistrates. As civil rulers, however, their authority 
was limited, for the government was rather aristocratic than 
monarchical. There was a Senate of elders who looked after 
public affairs, and the kings in times of peace merely had their 
votes among them like the rest. Then there was an Assembly 

79 



80 



GENERAL HISTORY 



of the freemen, which coukl decide questions only when the 
Senate was divided. From this it is evident that the people 
did not have much voice in the government. At a later date 
there was created an official body of five magistrates called 
Ephors, Avho were selected by the Assembly of the freemen, 
and who became possessed of arbitrary power when the kings 
Avere away in time of war. As time went on, they acquired 
a superiority over the kings themselves. Two of them went 
with the king to war and thus always kept watch on his actions. 
Spartan Education. — A Spartan's whole life was passed in 
the service of the state, which viewed him as a mere instru- 
ment for maintaining the power of his race. The sole object 










The Kace Course at Sparta 



of his' education was to fit him for this purpose. The state 
had its eye on him from his birth. If he happened to be a 
weakly child, he was exposed on Mount Tay'getus to die. If 
he seemed worth keeping alive, his parents were allowed to 
bring him up; but when he reached the age of seven, he was 
taken from home and placed under state educators for training 
in the sort of exercises that would make him hardy and vigor- 
ous. He was obliged to go barefoot, to wear only a single 



SPARTA 81 

garment at all seasons, to cook his own meals, and to sleep on 
a bed of rushes. Small and unappetizing portions of food 
were allowed, for the express purpose of leading him to hunt 
or to steal ; for the skill and strategy requisite for a successful 
theft were thought to be desirable accomplishments for a sol- 
dier, and punishment was not inflicted for the wrongfulness of 
thieving, but rather for the stupidity that permitted it to be 
found out. He was taught to endure the severest torture 
without showing signs of pain, and every one knows the old 
story of the Spartan boy who, having stolen a fox and con- 
cealed it under his shirt, permitted it to tear his flesh and kill 
him rather than betray the secret of the theft to his compan- 
ions. Constant gymnastic training and military exercises 
were required of him, and almost his only amusement was 
the annual festival in which he competed in music, dancing, 
and athletic contests with his fellows. 

Social Life and Character. — One of the most singular institu- 
tions of the Spartans was their system of public messes. Each 
mess was composed of fifteen men, who took their meals to- 
gether in public. Limited portions of food were allowed, each 
member contributing his share. Custom fixed not only the 
quantity but the quality of the food, which consisted chiefly of 
meal, cheese, figs, and a coarse kind of black broth. As 
soon as a young man reached the age of twenty, he left the 
training house for the barracks, and from that time was not 
exempt from the requirement to take his meals at the mess 
until he was sixty years old. Not even after marriage was he 
free from this duty. 

As to the military organization in the field, it surpassed that 
of any other Greek state. There were regular grades of offi- 
cers with definite commands, as in our modern armies. Mili- 
tary maneuvers were executed with remarkable rapidity and 
precision. Everything was done to make a Spartan delight in 
war. Some of the annoying restrictions of peace were relaxed 
and life was made more agreeable for him when he was under 
arms. 



82 GENERAL HISTOKY 

The submission of a strong, high-spirited race to this galling 
interference of the state with what we regard as the most es- 
sential private rights seems very strange. It is in part ex- 
plained by the fact that the system of Lycurgus was applied 
to a rude, unlettered people, who had developed no taste 
except for war. To make them invincible warriors was its 
object, and in this it was successful. Success and the weight 
of tradition fastened it more firmly upon them. Its effects on 
the Spartan character were very important. A Greek writer 
said somewhat contemptuously of the Spartan soldiers that it 
was not surprising they met death so willingly in battle, since 
their lives were made so unpleasant for them. Their bravery 
was undeniable. It was a matter of course. The coward was 
the exception, and the scorn felt for him was universal. Even 
the appearance of cowardice was feared more than death, and 
men sometimes killed themselves rather than return home after 
a defeat. So far, then, as fighting qualities were concerned, 
the Spartans were the foremost of their time. 

In other respects, the}'' were on a much lower plane. They 
cared nothing for art or literature. The oratory which made 
Athens famous was despised by the Spartans, who looked upon 
what was beautiful or picturesque as wholly superfluous, and 
aimed above all at that brevity of speech which we still 
describe as laconic (from Laconia, the name of their country). 
If their training made them brave, it made them harsh and 
cruel too. They neither showed nor expected mercy. They 
were ungenerous and deceitful in dealing with their foes. 

In the most essential arts of civilized life they were very 
backward. Their aristocratic spirit forbade a citizen to labor 
with his hands. Commerce was forbidden, and the cultivation 
of the soil was left to slaves. Spartan money consisted solely of 
iron, which, from its bulk and weight, could suffice only for a 
very low order of industrial life. 

The women received much the same kind of training as the 
men, and shared the latter's courage and physical strength. 
In public affairs, they had greater influence and showed more 



SPARTA 83 

ability than the women of the rest of Greece. On the other 
hand, they had something of the same hardness that dis- 
tinguished the men. They were neither gentle nor modest. 
So, on the whole, the Spartan training developed a fine, brave, 
but unlovely race, a race better fitted for conquering others 
than for civilizing itself. 

Early Spartan Conquests. — The effect of the reforms of 
Lycurgus was felt almost immediately. Within about fifty 
years of their adoption, Sparta conquered Laconia. Then fol- 
lowed two long wars with the Messenians. The first lasted 
from 743 to 723 b.c, and resulted in the defeat of the Messe- 
nians, in spite of the desperate resistance of their chief, Aris- 
tode'mus, who offered up his daughter as a sacrifice to the 
Messenian national god. The Messenians remained vassals 
of Sparta for many years, but suddenly, when Sparta was 
in the midst of a war with Argos, they broke out in revolt 
under the leadership of Aristom'enes. Many stories are told 
of the valor of this Messenian hero. He is said to have killed 
300 Spartans with his own hand, and to have visited Sparta 
by night and placed a shield in the temple of Athe'ne as an 
insult to his enemies. 

At this time Sparta seemed on the point of destruction, for, 
besides the Messenians, she was fighting Argos and a league 
of Arcadian tribes. She was repeatedly beaten in the field, 
'but held out stubbornly, encouraged, it is said, by the songs 
of the poet Tyrtae'us, who predicted ultimate victory. Finally 
the alliance against her was broken, and she was able to crush 
the Messenians (about 630 b.c). This time she made the 
inhabitants not vassals merely, but slaves. Argos was the next 
to suffer. Part of her land was taken from her, and thence- 
forth her power declined. Before the close of the sixth century 
B.C., Sparta had reduced all the states of the Peloponnesus 
except Argos to vassalage. 

Helots and Perioeci. — As the Spartan dominions grew in 
extent, the ruling race came to form a very small part of the 
population, the bulk of which consisted of slaves and vassals, 
Colby's gen. hist. — 6 



84 GENERAL HISTORY 

the descendants of the conquered tribes. These subject peoples 
were divided into two classes, the Ferioe'ci and the He'lots. 
The Perioeci (meaning literally those ' dwelling around ') were 
merely required to pay a tribute and send a certain number of 
troops to the Spartan army. They retained their personal 
freedom. On the other hand, the condition of the Helots was 
almost unendurable. Tbey were the descendants of those 
tribes to which the conquerors, for some reason or other, had 
seen fit to mete out very harsh terms. Far more numerous 
than the ruling class, and coming from a race at one time free, 
they were nevertheless kept in the position of mere slaves, 
subject to every caprice of their conquerors. Naturally they 
were always ready for revolt, and the Spartans had constantly 
to be on their guard. It was this ever-present danger of an 
uprising of slaves that made the strict maintenance of mili- 
tary discipline especially needful among the Spartans. The 
latter followed successfully a policy of terrorism. A secret or- 
ganization is said to have existed for the purpose of spying on 
the Helots, and making away with such of them as seemed likely 
to stir up revolt. The Helots always remained a despised and 
degraded class despite their superior numbers. The Spartans 
even made them fight in their armies. The land was worked 
by the Helots, but owned by the Spartans, who lived in their 
barracks in the city and enjoyed the fruits of their serfs' labor. 



CHAPTER XII 

ATHENS 

The Athenian Monarchy. — Athens lagged far behind Sparta 
in its development. Down to the sixth century b.c. it was a 
comparatively unimportant state. During the early period of 
its history it was ruled by kings, the first of whom was 
Cecrops, a foreigner, probably a Phoenician, and the founder 



ATHENS 85 

of the dynasty called Cecrop'idae. The lives of these riders 
fall within the Heroic Age, and accounts of them are merely 
legendary. The last of this line was The'sens, who was wor- 
shiped by the Athenians as their national hero and the real 
founder of the state. 

It was under the next dynasty that Athens came near falling 
under the power of the Dorians, who, having overrun the Pelo- 
ponnesus and the Isthmus of Corinth, invaded Attica and 
captured the city of Meg'ara. According to a legend, Codrus, 
who was king of Athens at the time, saved the city at the sacri- 
fice of his own life. There Avas a prophecy that Athens would 
not fall if her king should be killed by the enemy, and Codrus 
went alone into the Dorian camp and was slain. The invaders 
were repulsed and the memory of Codrus was ever afterwards 
held sacred by the Athenians. The kingship was now aboh 
ished, we are told, and thereafter the head of the state was the 
Archon, who was at first chosen for life from the family of 
Codrus ; but later the Archon was elected for ten years. 

The Athenian Oligarchy. — Before the close of the eighth 
century the government had become an oligarchy (government 
by a few), in which all power was confined to a few noble 
families called the Eupat'ridae. They alone had the right to 
sit in the Areop'agus or national council and to become archons. 
These latter officers were nine in number and chosen each year 
by the council, which retained complete control over them. 
The mass of the people who were not nobles had no political 
rights. 

Such a system is always liable to abuse, and in Athens it 
worked very badly. The nobles oppressed the people, and the 
state was torn by factions. There was always a large body 
of men whose wrongs made them ready to join conspiracies 
or follow the lead of demagogues. The city was governed less 
by law than by the caprice of the nobles, and the people could 
not tell what punishment was attached to an offense. This 
latter grievance finally became so intolerable that the nobles 
were forced to consent to the drawing up and publication of a 



86 GENERAL HISTORY 

code of laws fixing definitely the penalties lur crimes. The 
work was intrusted to the archon Draco (621 b.c), who im- 
posed such cruel punishments for offenses that a later Athenian 
writer declared that his laws seemed to be written in blood. 

Solon. — The laws of Draco did not put an end to factional 
strife. There were frequent popular outbreaks, and the city 
was approaching a state of anarchy. The condition of the 
debtor class presented a serious problem. The poor tenants on 
the estates of the Eupatridae had fallen greatly into arrears 
with their rent, owing to several years of bad harvests, and by 
the laws of Draco were liable to be sold into slavery by their 
landlords. If this were done, it would reduce the entire lower 
class in Athens to the position of slaves ; and since that class 
was numerous, it seemed likely that it would break out in 
rebellion rather than submit. 

At this crisis an Athenian noble named Solon was chosen as 
a mediator. Solon had won the respect of all classes for his 
wisdom and for the courage and skill he had shown in a war 
with the neighboring city of Megara. Being a man of high 
character and patriotism, he did his best to bring aI)oat per- 
manent harmony between the different classes. First he came 
to the rescue of debtors by canceling all debts and making the 
land the property of those who had formerly worked in the 
capacity of mere serfs or villeins. He relaxed the severity of 
all the old laws of Draco; checked the arbitrary power which 
parents exerted over their children ; improved the coinage ; 
encouraged trade, and tried in every way to promote the 
prosperity of the city. Still more important were the changes 
which he made in the system of government. 

The Constitution of Solon. — In his governmental changes it 
was Solon's object to check tlie oppression of the nobles, while 
still leaving the power chiefly in their hands. He made 
wealth and not birth the qualification for holding office, divid- 
ing society into four classes according to the amount of landed 
property possessed by the citizens. The archons were to be 
chosen only from the first or richest class, while the fourth or 



ATHENS 87 

poorest class was wholly excluded from office. As the nobles 
were apt to be rich, this plan still left them the ruling class, 
but their power was held in check by certain changes made in 
the forms of government. As a result of these changes the 
Athenian demos, or people, came to have a voice in public 
affairs, and a long step was taken in the direction of that 
democratic or popular form of government for which Athens 
was afterwards distinguished. 

The Tyrants. — The government of many of the Greek cities 
passed through the stage which they called a tyranny. Some 
ambitious man, finding the people ready to revolt against the 
aristocracy, would assume the leadership, overthrow the rulers, 
and with the consent of the people make himself the sole 
governor. He was called a tyrant, but the word was not used 
in the bad sense at present attaching to it ; it merely meant a 
man who had assumed absolute power. Oftentimes he governed 
wisely and well. For example, the tyrants of the city of Sicyon 
(070-570 B.C.) were frequently mild as well as able rulers. On 
the other hand, many of these arbitrary rulers were bitterly 
hated, like Periander of Corinth (625-585 b.c), who practiced 
the policy of killing or driving into exile any citizen whose 
wealth or popularity seemed too great. As everything de- 
pended on the personal character of the man who possessed 
this vast power, the time was sure to come when the office 
fell to the lot of a ruler too weak or too unpopular to keep it ; 
so tyrannies were never permanent. 

Tyranny in Athens. — Athens had its experience of tyranny 
in common with the other cities of Greece. Solon's reforms 
brought peace to the state for a little while, but soon the differ- 
ent factions fell to quarreling again. The old lawgiver lived 
long enough to see all his work undone and a tyranny estab- 
lished in place of his carefully planned constitution. When he 
died in 558 b.c, his own kinsman Pisis'tratus was ruling as tyrant 
of Athens. Pisistratus governed mildly and dealt so gently with 
his enemies that they were able to form a combination against 
him and drive him from the throne. This happened twice, and 



88 GENERAL HISTORY 

after his second expulsion it was ten years before he regained 
his power. When restored to the throne for the third time, he 
governed more strictly, but still with wisdom and moderation. 
He kept Athens at peace with other states, and spent the public 
money on the improvement and adornment of the city. He 
made his court a gathering place for literary men from all 
parts of Greece. 

On his death in 527 b.c. he was succeeded by his sons Hip'pias 
and Hippar'chus, who at first governed well. Hipparchus, 
however, soon got into trouble. Having a private grudge 
against a citizen named Harmo'dius, he publicly insulted the 
latter's sister. Harmodius with his intimate friend Aristo- 
gi'ton determined to kill both tyrants. They formed a con- 
spiracy and planned to carry out their purpose on the occasion 
of a public festival. They succeeded in killing only Hippar- 
chus. Harmodius was cut down at once by the guards and 
Aristogiton was put to death with torture soon afterwards by 
the surviving tyrant. Hippias now became cruel and suspicious, 
and his rule was so harsh that in 511 e.g. he was driven out by 
the aid of the Spartans, and the republic was restored. Thus 
the Athenian tyranny came to an end and the credit for its 
overthrow was given to Harmodius and Aristogiton, who, 
although their deed was merely an act of private revenge, 
were long regarded as the patriotic restorers of the city's 
liberty. 

The Reforms of Clisthenes. — After the expulsion of the 
tyrants, the aristocratic and popular parties fell to fighting for 
the control of affairs. The leader of the popular or democratic 
party was Clis'thenes, who, being a man of singular ability, not 
only succeeded in suppressing the aristocrats, but effected 
changes in the constitution of Athens which proved to be of 
the utmost importance. He really transformed the state into 
a pure democracy. He admitted all the free inhabitants of 
Attica to citizenship. Both the Senate or Boule {Boo'lay) and 
the Popular Assembly or Eccle'sia were increased in numbers, 
but the latter was increased in power as well. It not only 



ATHENS 89 

received foreign ambassadors, decided questions relating to 
foreign affairs, and required magistrates to give an account 
of their conduct while in office, but it could pass new laws and 
change the constitution, and exercise full authority in matters 
of taxation and revenue. Any citizen could rise and address 
the assembly, a right which was freely exercised and perhaps 
accounts for that almost universal taste for oratory which 
characterized the Athenian people. 

Ostracism. — A peculiar feature of the constitution estab- 
lished by Clisthenes was the right of ostracism, that is, of 
banishing any citizen whose presence in the city seemed likely 
to cause a political disturbance or interfere with good govern- 
ment. A special meeting was held, and if 6000 votes were 
cast for expulsion, the citizen voted against was obliged to go 
into exile for ten years. The term ' ostracism ' is derived from 
the Greek word os'trakon, a shell, the votes being written upon 
shells and placed in the ballot box. The resort to it was 
merely a matter of political expedienc}^ and did not necessarily 
imply that the person against whom it was used had done any- 
thing deserving of punishment. Men of excellent character 
were sometimes banished in this way, but their property was 
not confiscated, and when they returned they were restored to 
all their rights. Party strife was the bane of Athenian politi- 
cal life, and it sometimes happened that a party leader, how- 
ever honest and worthy he might be personally, was a source 
of danger to the state. But after all it was a severe measure 
and liable to fail in its object. By the close of the fifth cen- 
tury B.C. it had fallen into disuse. 

Effects of the Reforms of Clisthenes. — By this constitution 
the body of free citizens gained the real control of affairs, and 
Athens became the most democratic city of Greece. The cen- 
tury that followed the introduction of these reforms in 508 was 
the most flourishing period in Athenian history. This may 
not have been wholly due to the changes in the government, 
but it is probable that they aroused the patriotism and civic 
pi'ide of the people, and it is certain that in commerce, in war, 



90 GENERAL HISTORY 

literature, and art Athens began almost at once to show surpris- 
ing energy and in a few years held the foremost place among 
Greek cities. In less than twenty years from the adoption 
of the constitution of Clisthenes, she stood forth as the cham- 
pion of Greece against the Persians and won the great battle 
of Mar'athon. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Periods of Greek History : (1) From the Earliest Times to about 500 
B.C., the Period of Early Development. (2) From 500 b.c. to 338 
B.C., the Flourishing Period. (3) From 338 b.c to 146 b.c, the 
Period of Decline. — The Migrations : The Dorian Conquest. Greek 
Colonies in Asia Minor, — Aeolian, Ionian, Dorian. 

Sparta 

Sparta and her Neighbors. — The System of Lycurgus : Its Objects. 

— The Spartan Constitution : Kings. Senate. Assembly. Ephors. 

— Spartan Education. — Social Life and Character : The Public Mess. 
The Army. The Effect of Spartan Training. Racial Traits. — Spar- 
tan Conquests : Defeat of the Messenians. Spartan Supremacy in 
the Peloponnesus. Helots and Perioeci. 

Athens 
The Athenian Monarchy. — The Athenian Oligarchy : Abuse of Power 
by the Nobles. The Laws of Draco. — The Constitution of Solon : 
Society classified according to Wealth. Boule. Areopagus. Ec- 
clesia. — The Tyrants : Pisistratus, Hippias, and Hipparchus. — Over- 
throw of the Tyranny. — Reforms of Clisthenes : Athens a pure 
Democracy. The Ecclesia. — Ostracism : Its Purpose. — P]ffects of 
the Reforms of Clisthenes. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE SECOND PERIOD: THE FLOURISHING ERA 
The Persian Wars 

The Greeks in Asia Minor. — Before the close of the sixth 
century b.c. the Persian Empire was firmly established in Asia 
Minor. The Greek colonists there had first fallen under the 



THE FLOURISHING ERA 91 

dominion of Lydia, and when that state was merged in the Per- 
sian Empire as a result of the conquests of Cyrus the Great, the 
Greeks became dependents of the Persian monarch. Darius 
organized the administration in a very efficient manner, divid- 
ing the country into provinces or satrapies, the governors of 
which were wholly under his control. The Greek cities found 
the rule of these governors oppressive. Moreover, one of the 
chief characteristics of the Greeks was a disposition to resent 
interference with their local affairs. Each city wished to gov- 
ern itself, and this local patriotism was so strong that Greece 
always remained a collection of independent cities or states. 
Only the consciousness of common danger could draw them 
into a union in which the interests of the individual communities 
were subordinated to the welfare of the whole league. 

Revolt of the Ionian Cities. — Such a common danger was 
threatening the Ionian cities in Asia Minor in the reign of 
Darius. In 500 b.c. they broke out in revolt. Knowing 
that unaided they were no match for the vast armies of 
Persia, they appealed to their kinsmen in Greece proper. 
Sparta refused to aid them ; Athens sent a small fleet 
to their assistance. With these allies the colonists attacked 
and burned the city of Sardis in Lydia; but after this the 
Athenians gave no more aid. Darius, enraged at the burning 
of Sardis, carried on the war with vigor, and in 495 b.c. cap- 
tured and destroyed Mile'tus, the chief city of the rebels. 
This ended the revolt. Its failure was due chiefly to the local 
selfishness of the Greek communities, which were always slow 
to act in a common cause, each being intent on its own advan- 
tage and regardless of others if its own affairs Avere going well. 

Invasion of Greece. — Having taught the Greeks of Asia 
Minor the folly of revolt, Darius determined to bring their 
kinsmen in Greece to the same condition of dependence. He 
sent an expedition under his general Mardo'nius, but the fleet 
was wrecked on the rocky coast of Mt. Ath'os and the land 
forces were checked by the savage tribes of the north. Noth- 
ing daunted, he resolved on another expedition against Greece. 



92 GENERAL HISTORY 

He was especially angry at the insolence of Athens in having 
sent aid to his rebellions subjects in Asia Minor, but he now 
gave her, as well as the other cities of Greece, the chance of 
peaceful submission. In accordance with the Persian custom 
he sent heralds to all the cities, demanding the gift of earth and 
water in token of their complete submission to the authority of 
the great king. The heralds were received in a way to make 
him still more angry. The Athenians threw one of them into a 
pit and told him to take earth from there, and in Sparta the de- 
mand for water was answered by hurling the herald into a well. 

No pains were spared to make the second expedition success- 
ful. A year and a half was silent in preparations, and the 
army is said to have numbered 310,000 and the fleet to have 
contained GOO galleys. 

Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.). — The plain of Marathon, 
about six miles long and two wide, lies on the shore of the 
bay of the same name and is shut off from the interior of 
Attica by the foothills of Mount Pentel'icus. In this bay a 
large number of the Persian ships were anchored while their 
army was encamped near the shore. Against this great 
force the Athenians were able to muster about 10,000 heavy- 
armed soldiers ; for of all the cities of Greece the little 
town of Platae'a alone sent them aid. Sparta, being in the 
midst of a religious festival, refused to act till five days had 
passed, and her troops arrived too late for the battle. 

The Persian and Athenian forces faced each other for several 
days, the latter occupying the slopes of the hills. Finally 
Milti'ades, the leader of the Athenians, sounded the advance. 
His troops, running down the slope to the Persian lines, struck 
them with such force that they were almost immediately thrown 
into confusion. It was an easy victory for the Athenians, who 
lost less than 200 heavy-armed soldiers, while the Persians lost 
6400 and left seven of their ships in the hands of the con- 
querors. The rest of the Persian army escaped in the fleet. 

In the meanwhile traitors had been busy at Athens, and at 
this moment they signaled the Persians that the city lay open 



THE FLOURISHING ERA 



93 



to attack. Miltiades, however, saw the signal and, guessing 
what it meant, hurried off his army to Athens ; and by the 
time the Persians came, he was there with his army, ready for 
another battle. Completely disheartened, the Persians dared 
not land. They gave up their expedition and returned to Asia. 

Effects of the Victory. — Thus in the year 490 b.c. the 
Athenians had shown their ability to defend the cause of 
Greek independence against the greatest power in the world. 
The battle of Marathon was not remarkable in point of general- 
ship or of the numbers slain. Its importance is in its moral 
effects. The victory came as a surprise to both Greeks and 
Persians. Hitherto the Persians had seemed invincible, and 
for the Greeks they had the utmost contempt. The latter had 
gone into the battle as a forlorn hope. They came out of it 
with the consciousness of not only having beaten their enemy, 
but of having beaten him against tremendous odds. 

Miltiades. — The chief credit of it all belongs to Miltiades. 
But for his courage, the Athenians would have shut themselves 
up in their city and stood a siege ; and 
it was the stimulus of his heroism that 
nerved his little army to the victory of 
Marathon. And the people of Athens 
fully appreciated what he had done. 
No man was more popular in the city 
and none had more honors bestowed 
upon him. His greatness, however, was 
of the sort that only great crises call 
forth. When peace returned, he showed 
himself selfish and even dishonorable. 
Securing an armament from the city 
under false representations, he used it to gratify a private 
grudge against the people of Paros. He laid siege to their capi- 
tal, was unsuccessful, and returned in disgrace. He was put 
on trial, convicted, and fined, but died a few days afterwards. 

Darius. — Darius, the Persian king, survived the defeat of 
his great army only about four years. Had he lived longer, he 




Miltiades 



94 GENERAL HISTORY 

would have renewed the war ; for his determination to destroy 
Athens was only strengthened by reverses. As it was, he left 
the execution of this i^olicy to his successor, Xerxes. It was 
a lucky thing for the Greeks that it happened so ; ^ for Xerxes 
and his successors were men far inferior in ability to the old 
king. They were mere despots, while Darius was a far-sighted 
and skillful statesman. 

The Years 490-480 B.C. — It was ten years before the Per- 
sians renewed their attacks, and in the meanwhile Athens had 
another war on her hands — one of those profitless conflicts 
between neighboring states that occurred too often in Grecian 
history. This time it was the inhabitants of the island of 
Aegi'na that the Athenians were fighting. The war is impor- 
tant from its effect on the naval policy of Athens. The strong 
fleet of the Aegine'tans enabled them to hold out against 
Athens for several years, till finally the Athenians became 
exasperated and determined to build a navy that should crush 
their enemy once and for all. This policy was urged by 
Themis'tocles, but there was a strong party, headed by Aris- 
ti'des, who opposed it, partly on the score of expense, but more 
especially because they thought that the strength of the state 
should be in its land forces, and because they feared that a 
powerful navy would tempt to foreign conquest and lead to 
endless wars. Party spirit ran high, and at last the people 
had recourse to the expedient of ostracism. Aristides was 
ostracized and Themistocles had things his own way. Two 
hundred new vessels were built. As it turned out, this was 
fortunate. Already the rumor of a new invasion by the 
Persians had been brought to Greece. 

The Preparations of Xerxes. — The work begun by Darius 
was continued by his successor Xerxes, but the latter deter- 
mined that this time he would make failure impossible by 
raising such an army as the world had never seen. In this he 
succeeded. All the nations subject to the vast Persian Empire 
sent troops, and it was probably the most motley throng ever 
gathered under a single leader. According to some accounts, 



THE FLOURISHING ERA 95 

it numbered 5,000,000, and the lowest estimates place it at 
800,000, a figure probably nearer the truth. And the fleet 
was equally formidable. It is said to have comprised 1200 
war vessels. To facilitate the march of the army into Greece, 
Xerxes had a bridge of boats built across the Hellespont, and 
to avoid the risk of damage to his fleet in rounding the head- 
land of Mount Athos, he had a canal cut through the isthmus 
that connected the promontory with the mainland. These 
things done, the army and fleet advanced on Greece. 

The Defense of Thermopylae (480 B.C.). — The Pass of Ther- 
mop'ylae is a narrow strip of land lying between the Malian 
Gulf and one of the offshoots of Mount Oeta. Two miles 
across in some places, it contracts to a width of a few yards 
about midway. It was at this narrow point that the Greeks 
decided to take their stand against the Persian army. Yet 
only a small force was sent to defend the pass. Leon 'i das, the 
Spartan king, at the head of 300 Spartans, with their Helots, 
700 Thespians, and other allies, amounting in all to about 
10,000 men, undertook to block the path of the Persians. 
With a part of his forces he encamped in the pass ; the rest 
he stationed on a height several miles inland to guard a path 
which led to the rear of his position. 

Xerxes, despising the small force that he learned was hold- 
ing the pass, sent a messenger to command them to give up 
their arms. " Come and take them," was Leonidas' reply. 
The king waited a while to give the Greeks a chance to come 
to their senses, and then sent a body of his troops with orders 
to capture them and bring them before him. To his great 
chagrin, this body was beaten back with loss. He next called 
out the famous ' Immortals,' a chosen band of 10,000, the finest 
troops in the Persian army, but in fighting at close quarters in 
the narrow pass they fared no better than the others. For two 
whole days the Persians tried in vain to break through the 
Greek line. The check was complete ; the whole Persian 
army came to a standstill. 

At this crisis a Greek traitor told the king: of the round- 



^ 



96 GENERAL HISTORY 

about path over the mountains and, in return for money, 
offered to guide the Persian army to a point in the pass 
behind the army of Leonidas. The offer was accepted, and 
a ' Persian force passing over the mountains dislodged the 
Greek guards stationed there and suddenly appeared in the 
rear of the force in the pass. The latter were thus hemmed 
in by vastly superior forces. Their cause was hopeless ; but 
Leonidas was a Spartan and took the Spartan view of military 
duty. He allowed his allies to retire, but the 700 Thespians 
chose to remain. In the death struggle of this little band 
hundreds of Persians were killed, and even after Leonidas 
had fallen and only a few of his followers were left, the Per- 
sians did not dare to fight hand to hand. They stood at a dis- 
tance and showered the Greeks with arrows till all were killed. 

Though one of the most famous battles in history, the de- 
fense of Thermopylae was not important in its immediate 
effects. The Greeks did not hear at first how a handful of 
their countrymen had held the whole Persian army in check. 
They knew merely that a Greek force had been cut to pieces 
in the pass. And the loss to the Persians, though heavy, did 
not amount to much for so large an army. The chief result 
of Thermopylae was to give the Persians a very exalted idea 
of Greek valor. Xerxes judged the other Greeks by those who 
had held his army at bay in the pass. Thenceforth the Per- 
sians never showed the same confidence in fighting them. 
They thought they were all like Leonidas — a far too favor- 
able estimate, and one that proved of much profit to the 
Greeks. 

The Battle of Salamis (480 B.C.). — The Persian and Greek 
fleets met first off Cape Artemis'ium, where several inde- 
cisive battles were fought; but when the news came that the 
Persians had gained the Pass of Thermopylae, the Greek fleet' 
was obliged to retreat. Still, there was some encouragement 
in the fact that the enemy had lost heavily by storm. It now 
seemed hopeless to the Greeks to check the advance of the 
land forces of the Persians, and it was decided to abandon 



THE FLOURISHING ERA 97 

Athens and stake everything on a naval battle. Superstition 
pointed to this course ; for the oracle of Delphi had declared 
that the only safety to the Athenians lay in their '^wooden 
walls," which the ingenious Themistocles construed as mean- 
ing their ships. So when the Persians reached Athens, 
they found the city deserted by all save a few desperate citi- 
zens. They captured the city without difficulty, and burnt it 
down in plain sight of the Greek fleet which was lying near by 
in the narrow waters between the island of Sal 'amis and the 
Attic coast. 

Themistocles, the admiral of the Athenian fleet, was bent 
on awaiting the Persian fleet and bringing on a battle at 
this point. The Peloponnesian admirals wanted to retreat 
westward and take their stand at the Isthmus of Corinth, 
leaving central Greece to its fate. Themistocles succeeded by 
a stratagem. He sent word secretly to Xerxes that the Greek 
fleet was preparing to retreat, and that if the king wanted to 
capture it, he must send ships to both entrances of the bay. 
Accordingly, on the next day the Greeks found themselves 
surrounded, and a battle was unavoidable. 

Despite the loss through shipwreck, the Persian fleet num- 
bered about 1000 ships, while the Greek contained only 380 ; 
but in seamanship and courage the Greeks were far superior. 
Xerxes, sitting on the rocky height looking over the bay, saw 
the whole combat. The issue was doubtful at first. Each side 
fought bravely. After a while it was seen that the Persians 
suffered the heavier losses. They began to lose courage, and 
as the panic grew they fell into confusion and suffered rather 
than gained by their excess of numbers ; for their ships became 
huddled together and impeded action. The Persian admiral, 
a brother of Xerxes, was killed while trying to board an 
Athenian vessel, and about nightfall the Persian ships began 
to fall back. By the close of the day the Persians had lost 200 
ships and the Greeks 40, and though the former still remained 
superior in numbers, they had become completely demoralized. 
The Persian fleet was soon hastening back to Asia. 



98 GENERAL HISTORY 

The Battles of Plataea and Mycale (479 B.C.). — Xerxes appar- 
ently lost all hope after the battle of Salamis. He returned 
to Asia, but left 300,000 of his best troops under his general 
Mardonius to winter in Thessaly and complete the subjugation 
of Greece in the following spring. By that time, however, 
the Greeks had gathered an army 100,000 strong and were 
ready to meet him. The battle took place at Plataea. It was 
a strange, irregular figlit, in which the Greeks owed their 
victory to their heavy armor and better fighting qualities, 
rather than to superior generalship. Losing only about 1300 
of their own troops, they almost totally destroyed the Persian 
army. On the same day the Greeks won a naval battle off 
Myc'ale, on the coast of Asia Minor. 

The effects of the battles of Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale 
were decisive. Salamis demonstrated the naval superiority 
of the Greeks, and sent the king, the fleet, and the larger part 
of the Persian army in full retreat. Plataea was followed 
immediately by the submission of all the allies of the Persians 
throughout Greece ; and Mycale secured at once the independ- 
ence of the Ionian subjects of the Persian king, for all the 
islands and many of the Greek cities of Asia Minor at once 
asserted their freedom. Thus the king had not only failed to 
subdue Greece, but actually lost a large part of one of his own 
provinces. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Second Period. — The Greeks in Asia Minor : Oppression by the Persian 
Rulers. Mutual Jealousy of the Greek Cities. — The Revolt of 500 b.c. : 
Its Suppression. The Demands of Darius. — The Persian Invasion.—^ 
The Athenian Victory of Marathon, 490, b.c. — Effects of the Victory. 
— Miltiades. — Darius. — The Years 490-480 b.c. : The Strengthening 
of the Athenian Navy. Themistocles. — Preparations of Xerxes : Size 
of the Persian Army and Fleet. — Defense of Thermopylae, 480 b.c. : 
Leonidas and the Spartans. The Greeks betrayed. Their Defeat. 
Their Heroism. — Battle of Salamis, 480 b.c: The Stratagem of 
Themistocles. The Defeat of the Persians. — Battles of Plataea and 
Mycale, 479 b.c. : Effects of the Greek Victories. 



CHAPTER XIV 

ATHENS AT THE HEIGHT OF HER POWER 

Themistocles. — Without the Athenian navy, these successes 
against the Persians would have been impossible. Themis- 
tocles had done more than any one else to make Athens a 
great naval power, and it was he, too, who had the wisdom 
and the courage to force a battle at the right time. The main 
credit for the result of the war belonged to him, but he was not 
long allowed to enjoy his honors. His success made him many 
enemies and rivals, and what was worse, his own faults gave 
color to their accusations against him. He was an open taker of 
bribes. His old foe Aristides, who had returned to Athens and 
regained the popular confidence, taunted him with not having 
" clean hands." The people became disgusted with his corrupt 
practices and tired of hearing him boast of the services that he 
had rendered. Again recourse was had to ostracism, and this 
time Themistocles was the victim. He left Athens, and later 
falling under suspicion of treason became so generally hated 
that he had to leave Greece. He fled to the Persian country, 
where he was received with favor and made the governor of a 
province. Here he remained till his death, about 460 b.c. 

By some it was believed that he committed suicide. His 
career proves him to have been possessed of remarkable politi- 
cal sagacity and strength of will ; but the means which he 
employed to gain his ends were often unscrupulous, and his 
motives were selfish. He aimed to make himself the greatest 
man in Greece, but his success was transitory. 

The Naval Power of Athens. — After the fall of his rival, 
Aristides was for several years the m^ost influential man at 
Athens; but he no longer opposed the building of a strong 
navy. In fact, it was he who, by bringing about the important 
Confederacy of Delos, led to the establishment of the mari- 
time empire of Athens. This confederacy arose from a tem- 
porary alliance of Athens with the Ionian cities to carry on 
Colby's GEN. HIST, — 7 99 



100 



GENERAL HISTORY 



the war until all Greeks, whether in Greece proper or in Asia 
Minor, were free from the domination of the Persians. The 
Spartans, too, sent a contingent of ships ; and the Spartan 
general Pausanias, who had commanded at Plataea, was at 
lirst the admiral of the allied fleet; but his insolence and 
treachery led to a mutiny, and the fleet chose as its com- 
manders the Athenian admirals Aristides and Cimon. This was 
just after the fleet had captured Byzan'tium (Constantinople), 
a Greek city which held out for the Persians. The Spartans 



iV 






«M 







Hcrll 









M 



The Piraeus on Hahbok of Atiii;.n> 



now withdrew their ships, but Aristides concluded treaties with 
the Ionian cities for the joint prosecution of the war. Under 
Athenian leadership the war continued till its object was realized 
and the Greeks of Asia Minor had gained their freedom. The 
Confederacy of Delos had been formed to accomplish this one 
thing. Nevertheless, the Confederacy continued in force, 
Athens refusing to let its members withdraw. She became 
in reality the head of a league, and received money from the 
other members. Her naval power was greatly strengthened, 
and under the leadership of her able commander Cimon she 
won many victories and made herself the greatest maritime 
state of Greece. 



ATHEXS AT THE HEIGHT OF HER POWER 



101 



Pericles and Cimon. — Cimon inclined toward the aristo- 
cratic or conservative party and favored a policy of friend- 
liness toward Sparta. Per'icles, though he belonged to an old 
and wealthy family, was a champion of the democracy. Act- 
ing on the advice of Cimon, the Athenians sent a force to aid 
Sparta in putting down a revolt of the Messenians and Helots ; 
but it accomplished nothing and was treated by the Spartans 
with marked discourtesy. This brought Cimon into disfavor 
and he was banished (461 b.c.) ; but his banishment did not 
last long, for the Athenians were • defeated by the Spaitans in 
the battle of Tan'agra (457 b.c), and, thinking it wise to 
forget all party differences in the presence of danger, they 
recalled Cimon. For several years Athens was involved in 
wars, which, though marked by occasional successes, did not 
result in any great gain. 




Athens in the Time of Pericles 



Cimon died in 449 e.g., and thenceforth, for many years, 
Pericles controlled the affairs of the city. For a short time he 
directed the campaigns against the neighboring states with 
which x\thens was at war ; but he soon saw that permanent 
conquests in Greece were impossible and his policy was 



102 GENERAL HISTORY 

mainly one of peace. He concluded the so-called Thirty 
Years' Peace with Sparta in 445 b.c. It was not destined 
to last for more than fourteen years, but this was a sufficient 
interval to enable Pericles to introduce many reforms and 
greatly to improve the city. This i^eriod marks the highest 
point of the prosperity of Athens, as well as the acme of the 
power of the great statesman whose name has been applied to 
this epoch in Athenian history. 

The Age of Pericles. — The interval of about fifty years be- 
tween the close of the Persian and the beginning of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war has been called the Age 
of Pericles, — a somewhat misleading term, 
as Pericles was at the head of Athenian 
affairs for only twenty years (449-429 b.c). 
But he was the most brilliant statesman 
that Athens produced during that period, 
and his work is so closely identified with 
the greatness of the city that it is not 
strange that his name has been given to 
the period. 

Pericles -'• 

Soon after the battle of Salamis, Athens 
reached the height of her power. She aspired to be the ruling 
state of northern and central Greece, just as Sparta was the 
leading state of the Peloi)onnesus ; but her conquests by land 
did not prove enduring, and it was chiefly as a sea power that 
she possessed strength. She had the greatest maritime empire 
of all Greece. During the fourteen years of peace that pre- 
ceded the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war, Pericles intro- 
duced many democratic reforms into the constitution. Some 
of these were of doubtful value. While they educated the 
great body of the citizens in political matters, so that it was 
said that the humblest Athenian was fit to hold office, they 
led to confusion, vacillation, and other evils which became 
apparent after the great influence of Pericles was withdrawn. 

It was during this period that the Par'thenon and several 
other of the finest structures on the Acropolis were built — 




ATHENS AT THE HEIGHT OF HER POWER 103 

buildings which are still models of architectural beauty. The 
frieze running around the outside of the Parthenon and con- 
taining a vast number of sculptured figures representing a 




Interior of the Parthenon 



religious procession was the work of Phid'ias, the most re- 
nowned sculptor of ancient Greece. Athens was the resort of 
learned and talented men from the whole Hellenic world. This 
was the age. of the tragic masterpieces of Aes'chylus, Soph'o- 
cles, and Eurip'ides, and of the comedies of Aristoph'anes. 



104 



GENERAL HISTORY 



The period marks not only the highest point of Athenian 
powei', but the climax of Greek art. 




SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Athens at the Height of her Power. — Themistocles : His Loss of 
I'opularity. Banishment. — The Naval Power of Athens : The Con- 
federacy of Delos. Athens the Head of the League. — Pericles and 
Cimon : Rival Parties. Banishment of Cimon. His Recall and 
Death. Pericles in Control, 449 b.c. — The Age of Pericles: Great 
Power of Athens. Democratic Reforms. Architecture, Literature, 
and Art. 



CHAPTER XV 



THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 

Causes of the War. — The real cause of the Peloponnesian 
War was the jealousy felt by the other Greek states at the 
leadership of Athens. In time of danger the Greek cities 
might forget their local differences, but with the return of 
peace, all the old love of independence asserted itself. Athens 
retained the supremacy which she had gained for herself during 
the Persian Avars. She remained the head of the Delian Con- 
federacy and applied the contributions of members to her own 
uses. Many of the fine sculptures and buildings with which Peri- 
cles adorned the city were paid for out of these common funds. 

There was another thing which raised up enemies for Athens. 
She stood for the democratic principle. Not only was her 
own constitution thoroughly democratic, but her influence was 
always exerted in favor of the democratic party in other states. 
Sparta, on the other hand, was as invariably the champion of 



THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 105 

the opposite principle. It was natural that the oligarchical 
or aristocratic cities should look to Sparta for protection, while 
the democratic communities ranged themselves under the lead- 
ership of Athens. 

The occasion of the war was the aid rendered by Athens to 
Corey 'ra in a conflict between the latter and Corinth, of which 
Corcyra was a colony. Corinth appealed to Sparta for aid. 
This was granted, and Athens soon found herself opposed by a 
formklable league of Greek states with Sparta at the head. 
In 431 B.C. hostilities began. 

The First Ten Years, 431-421 B.C. — The strength of Athens 
lay in her fleet ; that of her enemies in their land forces. Dur- 
ing the first period of the war the contestants were fairly well 
matched, but Athens suffered from a deadly visitation of the 
plague, which carried off thousands of her citizens and among 
them Pericles (429 b.c). The death of Pericles deprived the 
city of the only man who was fit to direct her affairs. New 
leaders arose, but they lacked his influence and ability and 
could not repress party strife. 

Cleon was the leader of the democracy and Nic'ias of 
the more conservative party. The former won a victory 
at the island of Sphacte'ria, which he took by storm, cap- 
turing some 300 Spartans, but he was defeated soon after- 
wards in a battle at Amphip'olis. This and other calamities 
gave the aristocratic party the control of affairs, and 
its leader Nicias concluded a truce with Sparta. The 
truce of Nicias (421 b.c.) was to last fifty years, and both 
parties agreed to restore their conquests and prisoners. Thus 
all these years of fighting, with its waste of life and treasure, 
had brought little advantage to either side. To the Athenians 
it should have proved the wisdom of a policy of self-defense. 
This was the policy which Pericles had favored, but as later 
events will show, they departed from it with disastrous results. 
These years had also shown that Athens would do well to con- 
fine herself exclusively to naval warfare. Her land expedi- 
tions were almost always failures. 



106 GENERAL HISTORY 

The Sicilian Expedition (415-413 B.C.). — In spite of the 
truce of Nicias, there was no real interval of peace ; for though 
the truce was partially observed for a period of seven years, 
Athens and Sparta were continually trying to injure each other. 
Athens joined an alliance of Peloponnesian states against 
Sparta in 419 b.c, and in the battle of Mantine'a in the follow- 
ing year the Spartans gained a victory over the army of the 
allies, which included a contingent of several hundred Athenian 
troops. 

At this time one of the political leaders in Athens was 
the young Alcibi'ades, a man of unusual talents, but selfish 
and unscrupulous. Believing that he had more to gain from 
war than from peace, he did all he could to bring about a re- 
newal of the conflict. It was largely his influence which 
induced the Athenians to undertake the ill-fated Sicilian expe- 
dition for the purpose of conquering Syracuse, and, if success- 
ful, of asserting supremacy over all Sicily. This was certain 
to stir the jealousy of Sparta and cause a renewal of the war. 
Moreover, Athens had not recovered from 
the effects of the previous years of fighting, 
and could ill afford this drain upon her 
resources. 

It was one of the largest expeditions that 
ever set out from a Greek city, comprising 
134 vessels and a considerable land force. 
The three generals in command were Alcibi- 
ades, Nicias, and Lam'achus, but Alcibiades 
was soon recalled on a charge of impiety. 
Alcibiades Fearing to facc his accuscrs, he went to 

Sparta and did what he could to injure his 
native city. Nicias, who had long opposed the expedition, car- 
ried it out in a dilatory and unskillful way. Although rein- 
forced by a considerable body of men under the brave and 
skillful general Demos 'thenes, the Athenians were wholly 
unsuccessful. They were beaten in a sea fight in the harbor 
of Syracuse, driven ashore, and obliged to burn such of their 




THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 107 

vessels as had not been sunk or captured. Then followed a 
desperate attempt to retreat by land through the enemy's 
country. The whole force was cut to pieces or captured, and 
the generals were taken prisoners and killed. This was the 
worst disaster that had ever befallen Athens. 

The Close of the War. — Before the close of the Sicilian 
expedition, the war had broken out again in Greece ; for the 
Spartans had sent aid to Syracuse and contributed to the de- 
feat of the Athenians there. In revenge Athens sent a fleet to 
ravage the Laconian coast (414 b.c), but the city was weakened 
by the strife of factions. Alcibiades was recalled, and for a 
time Athens Avas victorious on sea; but Lysan'der, the Spartan 
admiral, won a battle, and Alcibiades, who had not been pres- 
ent at the engagement, fell into disfavor and was deposed 
from his command. Another victory which Lysander gained 
at Aegospotami (405 b.c.) decided the war. He took by sur- 
prise a large force of Athenian soldiers and sailors, killing 
many and taking 3000 prisoners. The aristocratic party in 
Athens was favorable to Sparta and in the following year, 404 
B.C., the city surrendered. 

This was the end of the Peloponnesian War. It reduced 
Athens to the rank of a second-rate power and completely 
destroyed her maritime strength. All that remained of her 
navy was a fleet of twelve ships which she retained by permis- 
sion of her conquerors. She was given up to the rule of the 
aristocratic party, and for some time was governed by the so- 
called '■ Thirty Tyrants,' who allowed a Spartan garrison to 
occupy the citadel and drove from the city all who opposed 
their plans. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Peloponnesian War. — Causes : Jealousy of Athenian Power. 
Athens the Champion of Democracy. The Difficulty with Corcyra. 
— The First Ten Years: Death of Pericles, 429 n.c. Cleon and 
Nicias. The Truce of Nicias, 421 b.c. — The Sicilian Expedition. — 
Close of the War : The Spartan Victory at Aegospotami, 405 b.c. 
Effects of the War. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACY 

The Retreat of the Ten Thousand. — The downfall of the 
Thirty Tyrants in Athens was accompanied by civil strife and 
the city was given over to anarchy ; but the democratic party 
finally triumphed and peace was restored. Athens did not 
regain her former supremacy. The leadership in Greece had 
passed over to Sparta. 

But Athens was still the center of art and learning, and 
among her citizens were the foremost men of Greece. The 
greatest of these was Socrates, the wisest of philosophers and 
the best of men. His teachings and conversation as recorded 
in the writings of his pupils show the highest moral purpose 
reinforced by the keenest logic ; but his fearless attacks on evil 
doers made him many enemies. He was brought to trial on a 
trumped-up charge of corrupting the youth of Athens, and 
condemned to take poison (399 b.c). 

His pupil Xenophon was famous as an author and as a 
general. His Anabasis is a graphic account of an expedition of 
the Greeks against the Persian king Artaxerxes. Cyrus the 
Younger, the brother of Artaxer'xes, revolted against him and 
called in the aid of 10,000 Greek mercenaries. With these allies 
he gained a complete victory at Cunax'a, in the very heart of the 
Persian country, but lost his life in the battle. After his death 
the Persian troops in his army went over to Artaxerxes, and 
the Greeks were left to find their way home as best they might. 
Their generals were tricked into an interview with the Persian 
leaders and all murdered; but the Greeks chose as their new 
general Xenoj)hon, who had accompanied the expedition as a 
private soldier, and under his able leadership they at last found 
their way through a hostile country and amid the greatest hard- 
ships to the seacoast. Xenophon's account of the upward 
journey and the retreat is one of the masterpieces of historical 



108 



THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACY 109 

Sparta. — The period of Sparta's supremacy was brief and 
troubled. It lasted from the close of the Peloponnesian War 
in 404 B.C. to the defeat of the Spartans at Leuctra in 371 b.c. 
Within five years from the victory at Aegospotami Sparta 
was involved in a war with the Persians, who were trying to 
bring the Greek cities of Asia Minor again under their rule. 
Under their king Agesila'us, the Spartans w^ere victorious in 
Asia Minor, and at one time seemed on the point of ovei'throw- 
ing the Persian Empire; but the Persian king saved his throne 
by stirring up jealousy among the states of Greece, and Sparta 
soon had her hands full in dealing with her enemies at home. 

The Thebans, aided by the Corinthians and Argives, made 
war upon her. Athens, too, joined the allies, and the supremacy 
of Sparta was seriously threatened in spite of her victories on 
land. Athens gained a naval victory at Cnidus and strength- 
ened herself by an alliance Avith the Persian king, but at last, 
in 387 B.C., Sparta made peace with Persia, giving up to the 
latter all the Greek cities of Asia Minor. By these means she 
secured the friendship of the Persian king and reestablished 
her power in Greece; but by surrendering the Asiatic Greeks 
to Persian tyranny, she forfeited all claim to respect as a 
champion of Grecian 'liberty against Oriental despotism. 

Thebes. — Sparta abused her power in Greece. It has been 
said before that the weight of her influence was always thrown 
on the side of the oligarchical or aristocratic party in the 
other Greek cities. Acting on this policy, she interfered in the 
affairs of Thebes and in concert with the aristocratic party there 
seized the citadel and set up a tyranny. The Thebans suffered 
this oppression for three years, then formed a conspiracy, 
assassinated the tyrants, and drove out the Spartans (379 b.c). 

The leaders in the movement for Theban independence 
were the two friends Pelop'idas and Epaminon'das, both 
brave men and ardent patriots. Epaminondas especially 
deserves his title to renown for his high and unselfish char- 
acter, and his ability both as a general and a statesman. He 
has been compared to our own Washington. Under these two 



110 GENERAL HISTORY 

leaders Thebes entered on a long war with Sparta, in the 
course of which her soldiers showed the utmost valor and 
steadfastness. It was closed by the decisive battle of Leuctra 
(371 B.C.), in which Epaminondas won a complete, victory over 
the Spartans. 

Sparta now fell from her supreme position in Greece, and 
Thebes took her place. For nine years Thebes remained 
the foremost city of Greece, but she owed her power to the 
statesmanlike qualities of her great liberator, Epaminondas. 
In 362 B.C. he fought another battle with the Spartans at 
Mantinea, but fell at the moment of victory. After this the 
power of Thebes declined. 

Results of the Wars. — Peace was now restored, but it was the 
result of exhaustion rather than of genuine reconciliation. 
Jealousies and bickerings continued between the cities. It 
was a time of weakness and disunion, and the way was open 
for the rise of a new power which should hold the rival com- 
munities in subjection to a common tyranny. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Spartan and Theban Supremacy. — Retreat of the Ten Thousand : The 
Leadership in Greece passes over to Sparta. Athens still the Center 
of Learning. Socrates. Xenophon. The Expedition of Cyrus. Re- 

> turn of the Greeks. — Sparta : The Supremacy of Sparta. Her Wars. 
Her Alliance with Persia. — Thebes : Spartan Tyranny in Thebes. 
The Theban Patriots, Epaminondas and Pelopidas. The Theban 
Victories of Leuctra (371 n.c.) and Mantinea (362 b.c). Decline of 
Theban Power. — Results of the Wars. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE THIRD PERIOD : THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY 

The Macedonians. — The most flourishing period of Greek 
history was the time of local independence, when each city 
was free to manage its own affairs in its own way. Unfor- 



THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY 111 

timately, the cities fell to fighting among themselves and 
became so weak as a result of the continued conflicts that they 
could not ward off attacks from without. To the north of 
Greece proper lay the country of the Macedonians, a semi- 
barbarous but hardy and warlike people, whose king, Philip, 
saw that the time had come for extending his power over his 
kinsmen in the south and building up an empire of which his 
kingdom should be the head. 

He began by interfering in the disputes between t'he Greek 
states, and by a free use of money bought the friendship of 
many who had opposed his designs. He provided himself 
with a well-drilled standing army and conquered the western 
part of Thrace. He next waged a war on behalf of the sacred 
temple at Delphi, and being successful in this, posed as a 
religious champion of the Greeks. The way lay open to leader- 
ship in Greece, but in the Athenian orator Demosthenes he 
found a vigorous opponent of his schemes. 

Demosthenes. — Seeing clearly that Philip was aiming at the 
subjugation of Athens along with the other cities of Greece, 
Demosthenes determined to oppose him. Some of the speeches 
of Demosthenes have come down to us and show his remarka- 
ble talent for persuasive speaking. He is placed among the 
foremost orators of ancient and modern times. All the powers 
of his oratory were directed against Philip in a series of 
famous speeches called the Philippics, with the design of expos- 
ing the Macedonian schemes and uniting all Greece in resisting 
them. At first they were all in vain. The Greek states would 
not unite because they Avere corrupted by Macedonian gold. 
Nevertheless, Demosthenes finally formed an alliance against 
Philip between Athens and Thebes, and these two cities sent 
troops against him ; but the allies were beaten in the battle of 
Chaerone'a in 338 b.c. This decided the fate of the Greek 
cities. They had to admit the supremacy of Macedonia. 

Alexander the Great. — Philip enjoyed the leadership in 
Greece for only a short time. He was assassinated two years 
after his victory at Chaeronea, leaving the throne to his son 



112 GENERAL HISTORY 

Alexander, who was then only twenty years old, bat had 
already given proof of remarkable military genius. Alexander 
was the greatest general that Greece ever produced. He was 
not only wonderfully skilled in military tactics, but he knew 
the art of organizing and maintaining the most efficient army 
that up to that time had ever been seen. The peculiar feature 
of this force was the phalanx, which consisted of foot soldiers 
armed with long spears and drawn up in ranks at such a short 
distance from each other that the spears of the inen behind 
projected beyond the men in the rank in front, thus presenting 
the appearance of a thick impassable hedge of spear points. 
In a charge a force thus disposed proved especially effective. 

Alexander was recognized as the general of all Greece on the 
death of Philip, and he soon made it clear that in spite of his 
youth he was quite able to enforce his authority. A rebellion 
having broken out when he was absent on a campaign against 
the barbarians of the north, he returned to Greece, suppressed 
the revolt at once, and punished with great severity those who 
had taken part in it. With Greece at his feet, he was now free 
to carry out his scheme of foreign conquest. This was at first 
directed against the Persian Empire, but his ambition, increas- 
ing with each success, finally aimed at nothing less than the 
conquest of the whole world. He left Greece, never to return. 

The Conquest of Persia. — With a small but splendidly 
equipped and disciplined force, Alexander crossed the Hel- 
lespont into Asia Minor and passed on to the river Grani'cus. 
Here the way was blocked by a Persian army, but he inflicted 
upon it such a crushing defeat that almost all of Asia Minor 
submitted to him at once. 

Marching on into Syria, he encountered at Issus, near the 
borders of that province and Cilicia, a vast Persian army com- 
manded by the king Darius III., in person. Alexander's vic- 
tory at Issus was equally decisive, resulting in the capture of 
the Persian camp and treasures and the family of the king. 
All the western part of the Persian king's dominions was now 
under the control of the conqueror. 



THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY 



113 



Egypt was next invaded and in a short time was completely 
subdued. Here Alexander founded the city of Alexandria, 
which in later times became one of the greatest centers of 
Greek culture in the West. Alexander now followed the fugi- 
tive king into the heart of his empire. Darius made his final 
stand in the plains of Gaugame'la, not far from the village of 
Arbe'la, which has given its name to the battle. He led an 
army estimated at twenty times the strength of the invaders; 
but the old superiority of the Greek over the Asiatic soldier 
was again demonstrated. Alexander was completely successful 
(331 B.C.). This was the deathblow to the Persian Empire. 




Alexander 



Darius 



The Battle of Issus 
(From an old Mosaic) 



The king managed to escape, but was assassinated soon after- 
wards. The great cities of Persia submitted to Alexander, 
who was now, at twenty -five years of age, the master of west- 
ern Asia. 

The Invasion of India. — Curiosity as well as the greed of con- 
quest tempted Alexander to penetrate the great empire to the 
east. The Greeks had heard wonderful tales of its wealth, but of 
the real nature of the country they knew nothing. Alexander 
led his army down the right bank of the Indus, repulsing with 



114 GENERAL HISTORY 

little difficulty the attacks of the natives until he reached the 
Hy das 'pes (Jhelum) Eiver. There he fought a battle with the 
Indian king Porus. The Greeks gained the day, but lost more 
heavily than when they defeated the vast armies of Darius at 
Arbela and Issus. 

Alexander subdued a large part of northern India, and would 
have carried his conquests further but for the mutiny of his 
troops. When he reached the river Hyph'asis, his Macedonian 














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soldiers declared they would not go a step further. This was 
the limit of his conquests. He returned to Persia by a new 
route, passing down the Indus to its mouth and thence to 
Persia by way of what is now Beluchistan. On the return 
journey the main body took the usual road, but Alexander 
with a chosen band passed through an unexplored region and 
three fourths of his force died on the way. He reached Susa 
in the spring of 325 b.c. 

Death of Alexander. — It was plainly Alexander's purpose to 
form his European and Asiatic dominions into a single empire, 
of which he should be the sole and absolute despot. Since his 
conquest of Persia, he had assumed the style of an Oriental 



THE MACEDONIxVN SUPREMACY 115 

monarch, and liis arrogance and vanity were so great as to 
ott'end many of his Macedonian followers. Before he went to 
India, he showed all the violence and cruelty of a tryant whose 
head had been completely turned by success. In a drunken 
fury he killed his friend Clitus, who had saved his life at the 
battle of the Granicus. To be sure, Alexander repented of this on 
coming to his senses, but he did not give up his drinking bouts 
or show moderation in his government. When he returned 
from his Indian expedition, he planned to make Babylon his 
capital ; but he fell a victim to a fever contracted in the sur- 
rounding marshes, which, aggravated by his continual excesses, 
caused his death in 323 B.C., at the age of thirty-three, after 
winning for himself the fame of one of the world's greatest 
generals. He had proved himself able to conquer a wider 
domain than any one before him, but he did not possess the 
highest qualities of a statesman. The great empire that he 
founded fell to pieces after his death. Nevertheless, his con- 
quests had one lasting result ; they spread the Greek civiliza- 
tion at least in some degree throughout the world. 

The Successors of Alexander. — After Alexander's death, his 
successors fell to fighting among themselves, each striving to 
gain for himself a large- slice of the divided empire. Finally, 
as a result of the battle of Ipsus in 301 b.c, the empire was di- 
vided into three parts under separate rulers : Egypt, Macedonia, 
and Syria. 

Egypt. — In the partition of the empire, the throne of Egypt 
fell to the share of Ptol'emy Lagi, an energetic and able ruler, 
the first of a long line of kings who also bore the name of 
Ptolemy. Alexander had transferred the capital from Mem- 
phis to Alexandria, and the latter city became a great center 
of Greek learning. Ptolemy protected the old religion and 
did no violence to the customs of the natives; but the impor- 
tant offices were filled with Greeks, and the civilization of the 
country was Greek rather than Egyptian. Ptolemy encouraged 
learning, began the collection of the great Alexandrine library, 
and founded the Mus^jum or university which drew students 

COLBY'S GEN. HIST. 8 



116 GENERAL HISTORY 

from all parts of the East. The line of the Ptolemies lasted 
till the death of Cleopatra in 30 e.g., when Egypt became a 
Koman province. 

Syria. — The kingdom of Syria was founded by Seleucus, 
whose successors are knoAvn as the Seleucidae. Under Seleu- 
cus the kingdom extended to the Ganges and Jaxartes rivers 
and included the best part of the Asiatic empire of Alex- 
ander. At first the capital was Babylon, but Seleucus trans- 
ferred it to Antioch. Under his successor the empire declined 
and split into fragments, and finally, in 60 b.c, the portion 
called Syria w^as conquered by Pompey and became a Roman 
province. 

Macedonia and Greece. — After the death of Alexander several 
Greek cities, with Athens at their head, tried to regain their 
liberty ; but the attempt failed, and the Macedonians inflicted 
a heavy penalty on the patriots, Demosthenes was one of the 
leaders in this revolt and after it was put down took flight, but 
finding himself pursued, he died by his own hand rather than 
fall into the power of his enemies. 

The Achaean and Aetolian Leagues The independent spirit 

of the Greek cities declined during the third century b.c, and 
they were willing to renounce some of their individual rights 
in the attempt to rid themselves of the Macedonian supremacy. 
This is shown by the formation of the Achaean and Aetolian 
leagues, which were not unlike the union of the Swiss states in 
modern times. Each city, while managing its own local affairs, 
surrendered to the central organ of government the control 
over external matters, especially the decision of peace and 
w^ar. The Achaean League, comprising at first ten Achaean 
cities, included finally the Peloponnesus, with the exception 
of Sparta. Athens and Aegina also became members. The 
Aetolian League included several of the cities to the north of 
the Corinthian Gulf. 

LTnfortunately, the formation of these leagues did not tend 
to promote the harmony of the Greek states. Tliey were 
involved in frequent wars and even fought with each other. 



THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY 117 

Macedonia, though not retaining her former power, was strong 
enough to act as an umpire in these conflicts. But the time 
was now a})proaching when a greater people than the Mace- 
donians shoukl assert its supremacy over the Greeks. Weak- 
ened by these internal wars, Macedonia fell, after a long conflict 
(200-168 B.C.), under the power of Rome, and after the battle 
of Pydna, Perseus, the last of the Macedonian rulers, was car- 
ried as a captive to Italy. 

Greece a Roman Province. — Now that the most powerful of 
the Greek states had fallen under a foreign tyranny, it might 
be supposed that the other Greek communities w^ould have 
maintained peace among themselves and gathered strength to 
guard against a similar calamity. They did not do this, but 
continued to flght among themselves as before, and in 146 b.c. 
the last remnant of Greek liberty was destroyed and Greece 
became a Roman province under the name of Achae'a. 

The period of the Macedonian supremac}^ and of the con- 
flicts of the leagues was, on the whole, a period of declining 
civilization in Greece. There were still scholars of note, but 
the original genius of the people seemed to be on the wane. 
It was not a time that produced great poets or philosophers, 
and something of Oriental servility and inertness is discernible 
in the Greeks of this period. Some writers attribute this to 
the reflex influences of Alexander's Oriental conquests, main- 
taining that while the Greeks imposed their civilization on the 
Oriental peoples, they tended to approach the Oriental tyj)e 
themselves. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Third Period. — The Macedonian Supremacy. — The Macedonians : 
The Weakness of Greece. King Philip of Macedon. His Policy. — 
Demosthenes: His Orations against Phihp. Victory of Phihp at 
Cliaeronea, 338 b.c. — Alexander the Great: His MiHtary Genius. 
The Macedonian Phalanx. His Supremacy in Greece. — The Con- 
quest of Persia : Alexander's Victories. Graiiicus. Issus. Arbela. 
Submission of Persia. — The Invasion of India : Alexander's Victory 
over Porus. Extent of his Conquests. His Return to Persia. — Death 



118 GENERAL HISTORY 

of Alexander: His Despotism. His Cruelty. Effect of his Conquests. 
— The Successors of Alexander. — The Partition of his Empire. — 
Egypt: The Ptolemies. — Syria: Seleucus and his Successors. — 
Macedonia and Greece : Destruction of Greek Liberty. Death of 
Demosthenes. — The Achaean and Aetolian Leagues. — Greek^ Wars: 
Macedonia conquered by Rome. — Greece a Roman Province : Lack of 
Harmony among the Greek States. The Roman Conquest. Chamcter 
of the Period of the Macedonian Supremacy. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

GREEK CIVILIZATION 

Religion. — The religion of the Greeks was singularly poeti- 
cal. They believed in many gods, whom they invested with 
human qualities and about whom they constructed countless 
picturesque legends. As time went on, the number of these 
gods increased, and worship was extended to the heroes of 
antiquity and to the supposed children of gods and goddesses. 
The king of the gods was Zeus (corresponding to the Latin 
Jupiter), from whom all law emanated. He was the source of 
the orderly principle discernible in the universe, but shared 
his government with his two brothers, Posei'don (Neptune) and 
Ha'des (Pluto), the former ruling over the sea, and the lat- 
ter over the lower world, where the wicked were punished or 
passed through a period of probation. With Zeus and Posei- 
don were associated ten other gods and goddesses who dwelt 
with them on Mount Olympus.^ 

1 The Greek poet Hesiod does not include Pluto or Ha'des among the greater 
gods, although his power was scarcely inferior to theirs. These greater gods 
were twelve in number. Besides Zeus and Poseidon there were Apol'lo or 
Phoe'bus, the god of poetry and music ; Hephaes'tus, the god of fire, corre- 
sponding to the Roman Vulcan and represented as a blacksmith ; Ar'temis, the 
counterpart of the Roman Dia'na, the goddess of the chase, and the divinity 
of the moon ; Her'mes, the Roman Mercury, the messenger of the gods and 
the divinity of eloquence ; A'res, the Roman Mars, the god of war ; Hera, cor- 



GREEK CIVILIZATION 



119 



Beside these twelve greater gods, there was a host of minor 
divinities, such as He'lios, the god of the sun, Bacchus, the god 
of wine, tlie Muses, the Ne'- 
reids or Sea Nymphs, the 
Graces, etc. The Greeks 
personified fate or destiny 
in the three sisters called 
Parcae or Moirae, who were 
superior even to Zeus him- 
self. They controlled the 
destinies of man's life, and 
prayers were unavailing 
against their absolute power. 
The Greeks farther believed 
in a principle of justice, or, 
rather, vengeance, called 
Nem'esis, which pursued the 
proud to their ruin and 
brought the guilty to pun- 
ishment. These are only a 
few of the many deities of 
the Greek religion. It dif- 
fered at different periods and 

at different places. Almost every locality had its guardian 
deity, every stream its god, and every grove its nymph. Hosts 
of satyrs, fawns, hamadryades, Nereids, Tritons, and centaurs 
peopled the Avorld of the imaginative Greeks. 

Oracles. — One of the chief features of the religious life of 
the Greeks was a belief in oracles, of which the most noted 
were those of Zens at Dodo'na and of Apollo at Delphi. The 
sayings of these oracles were regarded by the Greeks as revela- 
tions of the divine will. On the occasion of a great national 




responding to the Roman Jnno, the wife of Zens; Athe'ne (Minerva), the mod- 
eless of wisdom; Aphrodi'te (Venns), the goddess of beanty and love; Deme'- 
ter (Ce'res), the goddess of agriculture; and Hestia (Vesta), the goddess of 
the hearth, 



120 GENERAL HISTORY 

emergency the Greeks consulted the oracle and shaped their 
conduct according to its answer. The answer was often framed 
in words capable of a double construction. For instance, when 
the Athenians consulted the oracle before the battle of Salamis, 
as to what was the best course for them to pursue, the oracle 
replied that they should seek safety in their " wooden walls." 
This dubious response gave Themistocles a ground for main- 
taining that the fleet of the Athenians was their only hope of 
deliverance from threatened conquest by the Persians. There 
are many instances of these doubtful and unintelligible replies 
of the oracle ; for the priests or priestesses that presided at 
the shrine were clever enough to invent phrases which were 
capable of meaning more than one thing. 

Festivals and Games. — Another feature of the Greek reli- 
gious life was the holding of festivals. There were four great 
national festivals, — the Olym'pic, the Pyth'ian, the Isth'mian, 
and the Neme'an. The Olympic festival was held every four 
years in honor of Zeus, in the plain of Olympia in Elis. It was 
the most famous of all the gatherings of the Greeks. The time 
at which it was held marked the beginning of the Greek New 
Year, and the Greeks divided their calendar into four-yearly 
periods, measuring the interval between these festivals. At 
these assemblies of the Greeks, contests were held in which 
prizes were awarded for excellence in athletic exercises, chariot 
races, music, and poetry. The prize was merely a chaplet 
of olive or laurel placed on the head of the victor, but his 
name was proclaimed in all the states of Greece and his 
return home was signalized by a triumph. These gatherings 
became the competing grounds for talent in every field. The 
works of artists, poets, and historians were exhibited and 
read before their countrymen, and prizes were awarded to the 
best. These assemblies, by bringing together the people from 
all parts of Greece for the purpose of friendly contests, tended 
to make them conscious of the ties of race. During the greater 
part of Grecian history they were almost the only really national 
institution. 



GREEK CIVILIZATION 121 

Literature. — Of all peoples of antiquity the Greeks had the 
greatest literary gift. The writings of Homer are nearly as 
familiar to the modern reader as to the ancient Greeks. 
Another very ancient poet was Hesiod, the author of the 21ie- 
ogony and the Works and Days, the former describing the 
origin and history of the numerous gods, and the latter dealing 
with the daily life of the cultivator of the soil, and containing 
practical suggestions and moral reflections. Of the lyric poets, 
one of the most famous is Tyrtae'us, the lame schoolmaster of 
Athens, who, as the story goes, was sent by his countrymen to 
Sparta, and by his inspiring battle songs gained victory for the 
Spartans in the Second Messenian War. The writings of Ar- 
chil'ochus, another lyric poet, were regarded by the ancients 
themselves as nearly equal to those of Homer, but they were 
of a very different character, being satirical and at times caus- 
tic. The poems of Sappho (Saf'o) were so valued by her 
countrymen that she was called by them the "tenth muse." 
Love was the usual subject of her songs. Alcae'us was another 
passionate lyric poet, and his verses on love and wine, and war 
and political subjects were especially admired by the Greeks. 
Anac'reon may be called the poet of pleasure, for his odes are 
largely given up to the praise of love and wine. Pindar, on the 
other hand, was a poet of more serious tone. By many he is 
considered the greatest lyric poet of Greece. Among the poems 
that have come down to us, are hymns to the gods, choral 
songs, dirges, songs of victory, and odes celebrating the na- 
tional games. In tragedy the three great poets, Aes'chylus, 
Soph'ocles, and Eurip'ides, surpassed all others. Of these, 
Aeschylus (525-4:56 b.c.) was the most serious and perhaps 
the most impressive in style. Seven of his tragedies are 
extant. They deal with supernatural subjects, such as the 
anger of the gods, and the exploits of mythical heroes, and in 
their grandeur and force are perhaps the finest of all the classic 
tragedies. The style of Sophocles (495-406 b.c.) is more 
graceful and polished, though less imposing. As in the case 
of Aeschylus, only seven of his tragedies are extant, but these 



122 GENERAL HISTORY 

include (E'dijms the King, which was classed by Aristotle as 
the greatest of all tragedies. Euripides (480-406 b.c.) was 
more philosophical in spirit than either of the others. He had 
not their faith in the reality of the gods, the fates, and the 
furies, and he took his characters more from real life. Eight- 
een of his plays have been preserved. In comedy Aristoph'a- 
nes (about 450-about 380 b.c.) was the greatest of all the 
ancient Avriters. He wrote The Birds, The Clouds, The Wasps, 
and The Frogs, satirizing Athenian society in an amusing man- 
ner. In history, as in tragic poetry, three great names over- 
shadow all others. These are Herodotus (484-420 e.g.), 
Thucyd'ides (471-400 e.g.), and Xenophon (about 445-355 e.g.). 
Herodotus was a graphic and agreeable writer, but lacked criti- 
cal discrimination in sifting the true from the false. He was 
a great traveler and studied the national customs and geog- 
raphy of many lands. Thucydides showed the true historical 
spirit. He was painstaking and impartial, and his w^ork is 
written in a clear and spirited style. Xenophon was perhaps 
more of a memoir-Avriter than a historian, but his Anab'asis, 
already described, proves him a master of historical narrative. 
In oratory the genius of Demosthenes had no equal, although 
a talent for public speaking was widely diffused among the 
Greeks. Aeschines, the famous opponent of Demosthenes, 
was an eloquent speaker, and the speeches of Pericles and 
Isocrates are fine oratorical compositions. 

Philosophy. — Greece produced x^hilosophers whose Avritings 
influenced the Avorld to our own time. Among the early phi- 
losophers were Tha'les, Pythag'oras, and Zeno. Socrates, 
whose death has been recorded in the previous account of the 
age of Pericles, left no written Avorks, but his teachings Avere 
preserved in the Avritings of his disciples, of whom the most 
famous Avas Plato. The philosophy of Plato had a great in- 
fluence upon all departments of human thought, but its effect 
upon the Avorld Avas surpassed by the more ^^ractical and logical 
pihilosophy of Ar'istotle (384-322 e.g.). Aristotle's reasoning 
dominated the minds of men doAvn to the beginning of our 



GREEK CIVILIZATION 



123 



modern age. The scholars of the Middle Ages followed the 
methods laid down by Aristotle with hardly any deviation. 
Grecian Art. — Tn art the Greeks excelled all the nations of 
antiquity, and the forms which they designed have remained 
models to the world for all time. The masterpiece of Grecian 
architecture was the Parthenon, which has already been de- 
scribed. But there were other temples in great number which 
showed their marvelous skill in execution and their appre- 
ciation of the beautiful. The sculptures of the Greeks remain 




to this day as models of artistic perfection. In our own public 
buildings we see the preservation of the Greek genius in the 
graceful Ionic column, the highly ornamented Corinthian col- 
umn, and the severe but imposing Doric style of architec- 
ture. 

The Theater. — The Greek theater was semicircular in form, 
with rising tiers of seats. It was usually without a roof, and 
the stage was provided with little scenery. The theatrical 
performances grew out of the songs and dances in honor of 



124 



GENERAL HISTORY 



T3acchus. A peculiar feature was the chorus, which, in a sort 
of chant, commented on the actions of the players or narrated 
parts of the plot. Women were not allowed to appear on the 
stage. The actors wore masks adapted to the character of 
the part portrayed, and in comedy these masks were often 
caricatures of the public men who were being burlesqued. 
Greek taste would not permit murders to be represented on 
the stage. The deed was supposed to have been done behind 
the scenes, and the report of it was brought by a messenger. 







A Gkeek Theater, Athens 

The great dramatists held it beneath the dignity of their call- 
ing to write for money. They worked merely for fame. The 
performance lasted all day, one play following another in quick 
succession, and meals were eaten in the theater. The actors 
wore high-heeled shoes and padded their clothes in order to 
make them look more majestic, for the drama commonly dealt 
with gods and heroes. 

Marriage Customs. — A priest was not necessary to an 
Athenian marriage, but the favor of the gods was first invoked 
by suitable offerings. The omens were studied, and if not 



GREEK CIVILIZATION 125 

favorable the wedding was postponed. The bride was escorted 
by a procession of friends to her husband's house, where all 
partook of a wedding banquet. She wore the veil for three 
days after the wedding. 

Burial. — The token of death in a family was a vessel of 
water placed at the entrance to the house. A curious custom 
was the placing of a coin in the mouth of the dead to 
pay the boatman for his passage over the mystic river Styx to 
Hades. The funerals were often elaborate, bands of mourners 
and a chorus of hired musicians taking part in the procession. 
Sometimes the body was buried and sometimes it was burned. 
When it was burned, the ashes were afterwards collected and 
placed in an urn of bronze or clay. Sacrifices were offered 
at the funeral pyre and the grave, and, as among the Egyp- 
tians, articles of value or practical use were placed by the side 
of the dead. 

Meals. — A light repast in the early morning was followed 
by a more substantial meal at noon ; but the chief meal was 
the dinner at the close of the day. The guests reclined at the 
banquets, and used neither napkins nor knives and forks. The 
scraps of food left over were thrown under the table and after- 
ward cleared away by slaves. After the substantial courses 
were finished, the symposium (drinking together) began, the 
guests being first decorated with garlands. The wine was 
mixed with water by the chosen ruler of the feast. Music was 
a feature of the banquet. 

Houses. — The house was entered by a corridor opening into 
a large court surrounded by porticoes. The rooms opening 
into this court were the apartments of the men. The women's 
apartments surrounded another large court entered by a second 
corridor behind the men's apartments. The walls were often 
beautifully decorated with frescoes and the rooms furnished 
with articles of graceful and artistic design and costly materials. 
The first court contained an altar to Zeus, and the second court 
an altar to Hestia. The rooms were heated by fireplaces or 
braziers. 



126 GENERAL HISTORY 

Political Life. — The Greeks never rose to the conception of 
patriotism in tlie modern sense. Their patriotism consisted 
in the love for the city, to which they never joined a love for 
the race. They never developed a national state. Political 
strife was the curse of their existence. They were intensely 
local in their spirit, and apparently preferred to sacrifice their 
liberty to a foreign oppressor rather than merge any of their 
local privileges in a national Greek organization. They be- 
lieved in slavery, and even the greatest of their philosophers, 
Aristotle, argued that the wise and the good had a natural right 
to make slaves of the foolish and bad. Slavery was a recog- 
nized institution among the Greeks, and we must not imagine 
that to their minds freedom meant the liberty of all men 
dwelling in a community. 

While they surpassed all the nations of antiquity in their 
philosophy, literature, and art, they lacked political capacity 
and in the end became the subjects of a foreign power. Su- 
perior to the Eomans in all things that pertained to culture and 
refinement, they were, nevertheless, far inferior to them in 
political energy and common sense. They became the masters 
of the Romans in literature and art, but their subjects in tli^e 
domains of law and politics. . 



ROME 



CHAPTER XIX 



THE PERIOD OF THE KINGS 



Race. — ■ Before the authentic history of Italy begins, the 
country was inhabited by four races, — the Pelas'gians, the 
Etrus'cans, the Greeks, and the Italians. The Pelasgians 
were probably the earliest inhabitants. They were the kins- 
men of the people whom we have described 
under that name in the early history of 
Greece. The Etruscans lield the land of 
Etruria to the north of the river Tiber. 
Their origin is unknown, but is thought 
to have been of great antiquity, and long 
before Rome was founded they had devel- 
oped a civilization of their own. Neither 
they nor the Pelasgians, however, were 
destined to play an important part in the 
history of Italy. As to the Greeks, they 
were colonists sent out from the cities of 
Greece, and were confined to the southern 
coast, which, with the island of Sicily, 
came to be known as Magna Graecia, 
or Great Greece. The most important 
race of all was the Italian, which was of 
Aryan origin and akin to the Greeks. The 
Greeks and Italians had probably formed a single swarm 
which left the original home of the Aryan race at a date 

127 




Roman Standard Bearer 



128 



GENERAL HISTORY 



long before authentic records begin, and afterwards had divided 
into two parts, of which one occupied the peninsula of Greece 
and the other the peninsula of Italy. 

The Latins. — The Italians were divided into several tribes, — 
Latins, Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites, etc., — of which the most 




important were the Latins, who lived in Latium, between the 
river Tiber and the river Liris to the south. There was a long 
period during which the Italian tribes fought among themselves 
for the mastery, and at the end of it the Latins proved them- 
selves the strongest. The means by which they accomplished 



THE PERIOD OF THE KINGS 129 

this are involved in obscurity ; for the only account which we 
have of the history of the j^eriod is a mass of legends, full of 
marvels and unworthy of belief, except in their general out- 
line. The Romans themselves believed them, and as they 
throw some light on the character of those early times, they 
are worth our notice. 

The Founding of Rome. — The Romans traced their origin 
directly to the Trojan hero Aene'as, who, after the destruction 
of his city, went to Italy and founded a kingdom there. The 
capital of this kingdom was Alba Longa, but about the middle 
of the eighth century b.c. the twin sons of the god Mars by 
Rhea Silvia, a virgin priestess, founded the city of Rome. 
A variety of picturesque myths cluster about Rom'ulus and 
Remus, the founders of the city. They were said to have been 
thrown into the Tiber by a usurping king, but to have been 
cast up on the shore and suckled by a she-wolf. Later they 
were rescued by a shepherd, who brought them up as his own 
sons. When they had founded the city, they quarreled, and 
Romulus, the elder of the twins, killed his brother and named 
the city Roma (Rome) after himself. The date of this event 
was 753 B.C., and from this year the Romans dated their 
calendar. 

The Thirty Cities. — As Rome increased in power. Alba Longa 
began to fear her as a rival. A league of thirty Latin cities 
was formed, and in this Alba Longa at first held the foremost 
place, but Rome was remarkable for her stern and warlike 
energy. By means which are matters of legend rather than of 
history, she formed an alliance with some of the neighboring 
cities, and finally grew strong enough to attack Alba Longa. 
After a long war the latter city was captured, and Rome became 
supreme among the Latin tribes. 

Society and Government. — Rome was intensely aristocratic 
in spirit. The descendants of the original Romans and of the 
tribes admitted to an equal footing with them held for them- 
selves all political rights. They constituted the Patric'ian class 
or nobility ; they alone could hold office and control the gov- 



130 



GENERAL HISTORY 




ernment. All the others were classified as Plebe'ians, who, 
though personally free and possessing the right to hold prop- 
erty, were utterly without political authority. The Senate was 
chosen from the patricians, and even 
the Popular Assembly was made up 
wholly of that class. This division 
into classes was of the utmost impor- 
tance in Eoman history. For many 
years the main interest centers in the 
conflicts of the two, resulting from 
the oppressions of the ruling class and 
the persistent efforts of the plebeians 
to work their way upward to a posi- 
tion of equal political authority. As 
to the form of government, it was a monarchy, and remained 
so for nearly 250 years from the founding in 753. 

The Kings. — According to the legends, the reign of seven 
kings filled up this period, and the events of each reign are 
narrated with considerable detail, but can not be taken as his- 
torical facts. After Romulus, the founder, came Numa 
Pompil'ius, renowned as a peaceful sovereign and a lawgiver. 
He is reputed to have introduced many important features of 
the Roman religion, and his wisdom was so great as to give 
rise to the legend that he was in frequent communion v/ith 
the nymph Ege'ria, who taught him divine things. 

Tullus Hostilius. — Tul'lus Hostil'ius, the next king, was 
constantly engaged in war. To his reign belongs the well- 
known story of the combat between the Hora'tii and the 
Curia'tii. The armies of the rival cities, Rome and Alba 
Longa, were on the point of joining battle when it was agreed 
that the contest should be decided by a combat between the 
Horatii, three brothers in the army of Rome, and the three 
Curiatii, chosen from the Alban army. Two of the Horatii 
were killed in the combat, but the survivor managed to en- 
gage the victors separately in fight and slew them one by one. 
WHien Horatius returned in triumph to the city, his sister, who 



THE PERIOD OF THE KINGS 131 

was betrothed to one of the Curiatii, overvvhehned him with re- 
proaches and lamentations. Angered by this, he killed her, and 
was condemned to death for the crime, but his life was spared 
on account of the great service which he had rendered Rome. 

Ancus Marcius. — Like Numa, Ancus Mar'cius was a wise 
administrator and lawgiver. He was also successful in war, 
conquering several of the Latin cities, and bringing many of 
the inhabitants to Rome, where they settled on the Av'entine 
Hill. 

Tarquinius Priscus. — Tarquin'ius Pris'cus was a native of 
Etruria, who, coming to Rome in the reign of Ancus, soon won 
the favor of the king, and rose to a high position in the state. 
On the king's death Tarquinius ascended the throne, the king's 
children being too young to rule. He built the great sewer or 
drain (Cloa'ca Max'ima), which still exists, laid out the Circus 
Maximus, the great public race course, and completed the con^ 
quest of Latium. He was murdered by the sons of Ancus, 
who thought he was planning to deprive them of the succession 
in favor of Ser'vius Tul'lius, a youth who had been brought up 
at the palace, and was much loved both by Tarquinius and his 
wife Tanaquil. Tanaquil, however, concealed the death of her 
husband long enough for Servius Tullius to secure himself 
upon the throne. 

Servius Tullius. — Under Servius Tullius the plebeians se- 
cured a share in the government, on account of a change in 
the constitution, which made all citizens possessed of a cer- 
tain amount of property sharers in the government, whether 
they were patricians or plebeians. From his reign dates a 
new Assembly called the Comit'la Centuria'ta, or Assembly of 
the Hundreds, representation in which depended on this new 
principle of property. In this Assembly patricians and ple- 
beians voted alike, but the older body, called the Comitia 
Curia'ta, in which the patricians alone had the right to vote, 
still existed. 

Tarquinius Superbus. — The last of the kings was Tarquinius 
Super'bus (534-510 b.c). He tried to establish a tyranny, and 



132 GENERAL HISTORY 

his rule was so oppressive that not only was he expelled from 
the kingdom, but he made the kingly form of government so 
hateful to the Romans that for hundreds of years they could 
not tolerate even the name of king. 

Value of the Legends. — These stories, and a hundred others 
dealing with the period of the kings, are in their details purely 
imaginary, but they have a value as national traditions point- 
ing to some historical facts. Thus the legend of Romulus and 
Remus has as its probable basis the fact that the city was 
settled by shepherds; but its details, like those of many of the 
other stories, were borrowed from the Greeks. It is probable, 
too, that Latium contained many independent communities, of 
which Alba Longa was the chief; that there were many wars 
between them, and that Rome conquered them and added 
greatly to the number of her citizens. Facts of this broad and 
general nature are doubtless at the bottom of the legends. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Four Races of Italy. — Pelasgians, Etruscans, Greeks, and Italians. 
Aryan Origin of the Italians. — Tlie Latins: Division of the Itahan 
Race. The Latins dominant. — Founding of Rome, 753 b.c. : Aeneas. 
Alba Longa. The Legend of Romulus and Remus. — The Thirty 
Cities: Rivalry between Rome and Alba Longa. Rome Supreme in 
Latium. — Society and Government: Patricians. Plebeians. — The 
Kings : Legendary Character of the Period. Romulus and his suc- 
cessors. End of the Monarchy. 



CHAPTER XX 

THE PERIOD OF PATRICIAN RULE 

Periods of History. — From the overthrow of the monarchy 
to the establishment of the Empire was a period of 482 years. 
During all this time Rome was under a republican form of 
government. This long interval may be divided into four 
periods: first, the Period of Patrician Rule (509-304 b.c), 



THE PERIOD OF PATRICIAN RULE 133 

during which the plebeians were steadily struggling to assert 
their rights ; second, the Period of the Conquest of Italy (304- 
26G B.C.) ; third, the Period of Foreign Conquest, including 
the wars with Carthage and Macedonia (266-133 b.c.) ; fourth, 
the Period of Civil Strife (133 b.c. to the establishinent of the 
Empire in 27 b.c). 

The New Government. — After the kingship was abolished in 
509 B.C., the heads of the government were two magistrates 
called Consuls, elected each year by the Comitia Centuriata, 
the assembly in which, it will be remembered, the plebeians 
had a right to vote. The first consuls were Brutus and Col- 
lati'nus, of whom the former (known as the 'elder Brutus') 
had taken an active part in the expulsion of the king. The 
legends represent him to have been a fine example of the stern 
Koman virtues. His opposition to the king had arisen from a 
resolve to avenge a grievous wrong which the king's son had 
committed. Another story illustrates the rigid manner in 
which Brutus administered justice. When his own sons were 
found to have been engaged in a plot to reinstate the king, 
Brutus refused to pardon them and ordered them to be put to 
death with the other conspirators. 

The Authority of the Consuls. — The power of the consuls 
was almost as great as that of the king had been ; they were 
the chief magistrates of the state, and they appointed the 
senators and the officers who had charge of the treasury. In 
times of special danger one of the consuls might appoint a 
dictator, with power of life and death during the interval for 
which he was appointed. 

Quarrels between Patricians and Plebeians. — The establish- 
ment of the Republic did not improve the political position of 
the plebeians. All offices of the government were monopo- 
lized by the patricians, and what was worse, many of the ple- 
beians having fallen into debt during the long w^ars became, 
according to the old Roman law, the slaves of their creditors. 
Though they had few political privileges, the burden of mili- 
tary service fell chiefly upon the plebeians. Finally, when the^ 
Colby's gex. hist. ■ — -9 



134 GENERAL HISTORY 

could stand this state of things no longer, the plebeians with- 
drew from the city to the Sacred Mount, about three miles 
from Kome, where they declared that they would remain and 
found a new city (493 B.C.). This brought the patricians to 
terms, and it was agreed that two officers, called Tribunes 
of the people, should be chosen from the plebeians. The per- 
sons of these officers, who were to hold office for a year, were 
sacred, and they could annul by a simple veto any act of the 
consuls which they thought oppressive to the common people. 
Further than this, the debts of the poor plebeians were canceled. 

The Comitia Tributa. — Another gain for the popular party 
which was secured some years after was the institution of the 
Assembly of Tribes {Comitia Tribit'ta), in which the plebeians 
alone had the right to vote. This body chose the tribunes 
and afterwards secured other rights. From this time on the 
plebeians steadily increased in power, securing one important 
privilege after another. 

The Decemvirs and the Twelve Tables. — Down to the middle 
of the fifth century b.c, there was no regular code of laws ; 
but finally it was decided that ten men, chosen from both 
patricians and plebeians, should prepare a code of laws and in 
the meanwhile exercise complete control over the government. 
These decem'virs framed the famous code known as the 
Twelve Tables, which were the basis of all later legislation. 
It was decided to continue this form of government for another 
year, but the decemvirs for the next year governed in an arbi- 
trary way and the plebeians again withdrew to the Sacred 
Mount. The decemvirs were forced out of office, and it was at 
this time that the Comitia Tributa acquired an equal place 
with the older Assembly of the Hundreds and that the trib- 
unes gained the right to veto an act of the senate. 

Later Changes. — The consular offices w^ere still closed to the 
plebeians, but soon after the struggle over the decemvirate a 
law was passed creating the new office of Military Tribunes, 
who were chosen from both plebeians and patricians and were 
to have the power of consuls. For several years the attention 



THE PERIOD OF PATRICIAN RULE 135 

of the Roman citizens was taken up with wars, but before the 
fourth century had far advanced the political strife was re- 
newed. In 367 B.C. the so-called Licinian Laws were passed, 
which marked another great step in the upward movement of 
the plebeians. These laws provided for the relief of material 
Avant by canceling the debts of the poor and by forbidding the 
concentration of land in the hands of a single person beyond a 
certain limit. They also decreed that one of the two consuls 
must be chosen from the plebeians. There was a long struggle 
between the two classes before these changes went into effect, 
but it resulted in a complete victory for the plebeians ; all the 
offices were thrown open to them, and by the close of the 
fourth century b.c. political equality was secured. 

Wars. — Erom the establishment of the Republic to the close 
of the fourth century, Rome was engaged in frequent wars, the 
chief of which were : first, the wars with the Ae'quians and the 
Vol'sciaus; second, war with the Etruscans; third, war with 
Veii ( Vay'ee) ; fourth, the repulse of the Gauls ; and fifth the 
wars with the Samnites and Latins. As these struggles really 
led up to the first conquest of Italy, they are described in the 
next chapter. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Periods of History : (1) Period of Patrician Rule, 509-304 b.c. ; 
(2) Period of tlie Conquest of Italy, 304-266 b.c. ; (3) Period of 
Foreign Conquest, 266-133 b.c. ; (4) Period of Civil Strife to tlie 
Establisliment of tlie Empire, 133-27 b.c. — The New Government. 
— The Consuls. — Brutus. — The Consular Authority. — Quarrels 
between Patricians and Plebeians : Wrongs of the Plebeians. Their 
Withdrawal to the Sacred Mount. The Office of the Tribunes. — 
The Comitia Tributa. — The Decemvirs and the Tvi^elve Tables. — 
Abuse of Power by the Decemvirs. — Second Withdrawal of the 
Plebeians to the Sacred Mount. — Later Changes : The Military 
Tribunes. Political Equality Secured by the Plebeians. — Wars 
during this Period. 



CHAPTER XXI 



THE CONQUEST OF ITALY 




Roman Foot Soldier 



War with the Volscians and Aequians. — While Rome was 
weakened by internal conflicts of the social classes, her ene- 
mies, the Aequians and the Volscians, began to encroach upon 
her. The story of the wars Avhich followed is a mere matter 
of tradition. There is a legend that a pa- 
trician named Coriola'nus proposed that 
the grain which had been procured with 
some difficulty in a time of famine should 
not be distributed among the plebeians 
unless they would agree to give up the 
Tribunate. So great was the outcry 
against this proposal that Coriolanus was 
obliged to leave the city. In his resent- 
ment he went over to the Volscians and 
led their armies against Rome ; and, it is 
said, with such success that he soon had 
the city at his mercy. All supplications were in vain until 
his mother and wife joined in entreating him to spare the 
city. He then gave way, and, telling his mother that she had 
saved Rome but lost her son, led the Volscian army back. 

Another story relates to the war with the Aequians. For 
some time they had been successful against Rome, and finally 
seemed on the point of taking the city. In these straits the 
Senate sent messengers to Cincinna'tus, a patrician who had 
formerly held the offices of senator and consul. Roman his- 
torians illustrate the simplicity of their hero by citing the fact 
that the messengers found him plowing on his farm. He 
responded to the call, and, becoming dictator, drove back the 
enemy and rescued the state. Having accomplished this in a 
little more than two weeks, he gave up his office and returned 
to the plow. 

136 



THE CONQUEST OF ITALY 



13T 



^^ The War with the Etruscans and Capture of Veil. — Some his- 
torians believe that before the beginning of authentic history 
Rome formed a part of a great Etruscan empire, and that she 
won her independence with great difficulty. However this 
may be, it is certain that the two races became involved in war 
early in the fifth century b.c, the Etruscans having held cer- 
tain towns on the Roman side of the river Tiber. These wars 
lasted many years, and finally the Etruscan town of Veii be- 
came the center of the conflict. The Romans laid siege to this 
town for ten years, and in 396 b.c. it was captured by the dic- 
tator Camil'lus. After this many of the other Etruscan towns 
fell under the power of Rome. 

The Gallic Invasion (390 B.C.). — The Gauls were a Celtic 
race dwelling in southern France and northern Italy. While 
the Etruscan wars were going 
on, these barbarians pressed down 
into Italy and were soon ad- 
vancing on Rome. A great 
battle was fought between them 
and the Romans near the river 
AUia, about eleven miles north 
of the city, and the invaders 
were completely victorious. 
The Roman army was panic- 
stricken and the people fled in 
despair across the Tiber. Some 
escaped to Veii, but the greater 
part were slain. A handful of 
men, however, remained in Rome and undertook to save the 
capitol. Under their chief, Brennus, the Gauls poured into 
the city, plundered and burned the temple, and murdered 
the aged senators, who, according to the legend, were sitting 
silent in the Forum, clad in their robes of state. 

Another story tells how the Gauls, having found a path up to 
the capitol, planned a night attack, but the cackling of geese 
awoke the defenders just in time to repulse the attack. Then 




Gall 



Horsemen 



138 GENERAL HISTORY 

the Gauls settled down to the policy of starving out the little 
garrison, but finally offered to retire on condition of receiving 
1000 pounds in gold. According to the legend, when the 
Romans complained that the weights of the scales in which the 
gold w^as being weighed were false, Brennus cast his sword 
into the balance, exclaiming, " Woe to the conquered ; " but at 
this very moment Camillus, who had gathered an army from 
the fugitives, appeared in the city and scattered the insolent 
barbarians in flight. Whatever may be the foundation of these 
tales, it is certain that the Gauls left Rome. 

After the withdrawal of the Gauls, the Romans returned to 
find the city in ruins, but they set about the task of rebuilding 
with such energy that in a short time the damage was repaired. 
Legend connects the name of the patrician Manlius with the 
defense of the citadel against the Gauls, and it is said that 
after this brave deed he took up the cause of the plebeians and 
tried to relieve the debtor class. This roused the bitter enmity 
of the men of his own. rank. When attacked by the patricians, 
he withdrew to the Capitoline hill with a band of followers 
and tried to defend himself. It was all in vain. He was 
seized and condemned to death, being thrown from the Tar- 
pe'ian Rock, a cliff on the side of the Capitoline hill where 
traitors were executed. 

The First Samnite War. — The details of the First Sam- 
nite War, begun in 343 b.c, are given by the historian Livy, 
but are very dubious. The Romans, according to his ac- 
count, were victorious in three great battles and made peace 
only because they were afraid of an attack from their Latin 
allies. 

The War with the Latins. — When the Romans incorporated 
another tribe within their state, they did not admit them to 
the same privileges as the original Roman citizens. In fact, 
the whole struggle between the patricians and plebeians sprang 
in the first instance from the difference in race. The patricians 
were the descendants of the original tribes, while the ple- 
beians were the descendants of those other tribes which were 



THE CONQUEST OF ITALY 139 

afterwards incorporated in the state, but were not admitted to 
the same position of authority as the original Romans. Even 
though a member of an incorporated tribe was of noble birth 
in his own city, he became merely a plebeian in Rome. So the 
revolt of the Latin states which broke out in 340 b.c. was of 
the same nature as the struggles already described between the 
patricians and the plebeians. The Latins demanded an equal 
share in the public offices of Rome and an equal distribution of 
the spoils of conquests. Finding their demands unheeded, 
they refused to recognize Rome any longer as the head of the 
league. It was a ver}^ formidable revolt, but the Romans were 
in the end successful. A famous battle was fought near 
Vesuvius, at which, according to the legend, the general Decius 
Mus saved the Roman army at the cost of his own life. Another 
victory was won at Trifa'num, and the league of the cities 
was dissolved. They lost even such privileges as they had 
formerly possessed, they were not allowed to govern them- 
selves, and the inhabitants of the Latin cities were required 
to come to Rome for the purchase and sale of goods. They 
had not the right to vote, and the law forbade the inhabit- 
ants of different cities to intermarry or to trade with one 
another. 

The Second Samnite War (326-304 B.C.). — This war arose 
from the encroachment of the Romans on Samnite territory. 
It really meant the conquest of Italy for the successful con- 
testant. It is remarkable for one of the most serious reverses 
that ever befell a Roman army. In the famous Caudine Pass, 
or Caudine Forks, in 321 B.C., a Roman army was ambuscaded 
by the Samnites and obliged to surrender. The victorious 
Samnites were now joined by the Etruscans, and it looked for 
a moment as if Rome w^ould be overthrown by the allies ; but 
in 310 B.C. the Romans Avon a decided victory over the Etrus- 
cans on the shores of the Vadimonian Lake, and a few years 
later the capital of the Samnites fell into the hands of the 
Romans and peace was restored. 

The Third Samnite War (298-290 B.C.). — The peace did not 



140 



GENERAL HISTORY 



last long. The Samnites formed a powerful league, having as 
their allies the Umbrians, Etruscans, and Gauls. More than 
all that, they were joined in the south by Apulians, Lucanians, 
and Greeks. It seemed like a simultaneous uprising on the 
part of all Italy to shake off the Eoman yoke. The war was 
decided at Senti'num, 295 b.c, where the Samnites and their 
allies were defeated, and though the contest was kept up for 
several years longer, in the end the Komans won the day. 

Pyrrhus. — In 282 b.c, after a victory over the Gauls and 
Etruscans, the Komans had but one formidable enemy to block 
their way in their attempt to conquer all of Italy. Kome had 
made herself supreme in central Italy, and it now remained for 
her to conquer the Greek cities of the southern part of the penin- 
sula. The excuse for the conflict was 
an alleged insult offered by the inhabit- 
ants of Taren'tum to an ambassador 
from Rome. Both cities delayed awhile 
before coming to blows; but Tarentum 
finally called in the aid of Pyrrhus, 
King of Epirus. Pyrrhus was an ad- 
venturous and brave soldier, and his 
fame had already spread to Italy. In 
the first battle, at Heracle'a, the Ro- 
mans were defeated, chiefly, it is said, 
on account of a new and strange mode 
of fighting which Pyrrhus for the first time employed. He 
employed elephants to give to his troops an advantage in hurl- 
ing missiles and to crush down the opposing, ranks. Never- 
theless, his victory was so dearly bought that he is said to 
have declared afterwards, " Another such victory and I must 
return to Epirus alone." He always admitted openly the 
fine discipline which his enemies displayed. Pyrrhus was 
again victorious in 279 at As'culum, but his loss was very 
heavy. 

After this the Romans gained a brief respite on account of 
the absence of Pyrrhus for two years on an expedition in aid of 




THE CONQUEST OF ITALY 141 

his Greek countrymen in Sicily, who had been attacked by tlie 
Carthaginians. He was worsted in his Sicilian contest, but 
returned to Italy and renewed the fight with the Romans. 
This time he was completely routed at Beneven'tum (274 b.c). 
After this he returned to Epirus and died in 272 b.c. This 
success established the Roman supremacy over the whole penin- 
sula of Italy, south of the river Ru'bicon. 

The Roman State. — With the establishment of Roman domi- 
nation over Italy, it is important to notice the nature of the gov- 
ernment and to ascertain whether or not the newly conquered 
people received the rights of Roman citizens. The real ruling 
power in the Roman state was the people of Rome; that is, the 
comparatively small number of persons who were centered in 
the districts to the north and south of the Tiber, comprising 
the Roman territory proper. 

'' The Roman domination in Italy was a domination of a city 
over cities." In Rome itself all citizens enjoyed the same 
rights. A Roman could marry into the families of all other 
citizens irrespective of their birth or social standing, and had 
the right to hold and bequeath property and purchase and sell 
goods. He had also the right of suffrage and of holding office. 
In the conquered towns it was different. To some cities Rome 
gave the right of personal citizenship ; that is to say, when any 
inhabitant of these cities visited Rome, he became in fact a 
Roman citizen. To other cities Rome granted a full measure 
of private rights and withheld all public rights ; that is, the 
right to vote and to be elected to office. 

There were other towns called colonies, which were formed 
by the cession of lands to the poorer classes in Rome, and 
there were still others called prefectures, the government of 
which was in the hands of a prefect, who was appointed at 
Rome. The most favored cities were those which were called 
the allies of Rome. These appointed their own chief magis- 
trates and governed themselves, though their inhabitants did 
not have the right of Roman citizenship. Rome reserved for 
herself the right of making peace or declaring war, of receiv- 



142 GENERAL HISTORY 

ing embassies, and of coining money. Special privileges were 
sometimes granted to the conquered cities under the name of 
the Latin franchise, so called because it was first originally 
held by the citizens of Latium. This did not confer citizen- 
ship, but made it easy to obtain it. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Conquest of Italy : War with the Volscians and Aequians. 
Coriolanus. Cinciniiatus. — War with the Etruscans and Capture of 
Veii. — The Gallic Invasion, 390 b.c. : The Battle of the Allia. The 
Gauls capture Rome. Defense of the Capitol. Defeat and Expul- 
sion of the Gauls. — First Samnite War. — War with the Latins : 
Demand of the Latins for Political Equality. Roman Victories. — 
Second Samnite War, 326-304 b.c. : Roman Defeat at the Caudine 
Forks. Their Victory near the Vadimonian Lake. — Tliird Samnite 
War, 298-290 b.c. : Success of the Romans. — Fyrrhus : Difficulty 
with Tarentum. Pyrrhus aids the Tarentines. Defeat of the 
Romans at Heraclea and Asculum. Their Victory at Beneventum, 
274 B.C. — The Roman State: The Roman People the Real Ruling 
Power. Privileges Granted to the Allies of Rome. 



CHAPTER XXII 

FOREIGN CONQUESTS 

Character of the Period. — By 266 b.c. Kome held sway over 
all Italy south of the Rubicon. For more than a century and 
a quarter after this she was engaged in foreign wars. The 
most important of these wars was the conflict with the Car- 
thaginians, which lasted until the destruction of Carthage in 
146 B.C. The other great foreign war that Rome had on her 
hands during this period was the war with the Greeks, which 
closed almost at the same time as the Carthaginian War, and 
resulted in the reduction of Greece to the position of a Roman 
province. 

The Carthaginians. — Carthage was a colony of the Phoeni- 



FOREIGN CONQUESTS 143 

cians, and inheriting the commercial genius of the race from 
which she sprang, she soon became the most important mari- 
time power of the Mediterranean. It was natural that the 
two great states on opposite shores of the Mediterranean should 
come into conflict. Each was desirous of extending its empire. 
Of the two, Carthage had the advantage on sea, for she had a 
powerful navy, while Rome owed her strength merely to the 
prowess of her land forces. 

The immediate cause of the conflict between Rome and Car- 
thage was the seizure of the town of Messa'na in Sicily by a 
body of Campanian mercenaries called Mam'ertines or Sons of 
Mars, who were afterwards attacked by the king of Syracuse 
and appealed to the Romans for aid. The Carthaginians were 
the allies of the Syracusans in the war with these Campanian 
troops, and thus the Romans were involved in war with the 
Carthaginians. The Romans had no real grievance against 
the Carthaginians, but they were bent on foreign conquest and 
were glad of an opportunity to measure their strength with 
their rivals. 

The First Punic or Carthaginian War (264-241 B.C.). — Early 
in the war the Romans captured Agrigen'tum ; but though suc- 
cessful on land, they were greatly inferior to the Carthaginians 
on sea. With extraordinary energ}^, however, the Romans 
built a fleet, using as their model, it is said, a Carthaginian 
vessel which was stranded on the Italian coast. With this 
hastily constructed fleet the Romans encountered the Cartha- 
ginians and, as might have been expected, were defeated ; but 
afterwards they won an important naval victory at Mylae, and 
soon after this they gained possession of almost all Sicily. 
Rome now decided to dispatch an expedition against Africa. 
The fleet in which this expedition set out met a Carthaginian 
fleet at Ec'nomus, and defeated it. The Carthaginians now 
sued for peace, but the terms were so hard that they rejected 
them, and, gathering an army, fell upon the Romans (who had 
by this time landed on the shores of Africa), defeated them, 
and captured their general Reg'ulus in 255 b.c. 



144 



GENERAL HISTORY 



Rome now equipped another fleet, but after some success it 
was destroyed by storm. The war was then confined to Sicily, 
where the Carthaginians suffered a severe defeat near the town 
of Panormus on the island (251 B.C.). After this the Romans 
lost heavily by sea until, under their general Cat'ulus, they 
won a victory over the Carthaginians at the Aega'tes Islands 
near Lilybae'um (241 B.C.). The Carthaginians now made 
peace, agreeing to the terms which the Romans imposed. 



^ 








A Roman War Ship 



They paid a considerable sum of money to Rome, gave up 
their claim to Italy and the neighboring small islands, and 
permitted the Romans to form the Avestern part of Sicily 
into a province. This brought the First Punic War to a close 
in 241 B.C. 

An interesting story is told of the fate of Regulus, which, 
though doubtful as history, is of value as showing the ideas 
of the ancient Romans in regard to honor and the value of a 
promise. It is said that Regulus was sent out from Carthage 
after his capture in company with Carthaginian ambassadors 
to sue for peace from Rome. Before he left Carthage he 
promised to come back and endure whatever penalty the Car- 



FOREIGN CONQUESTS 



145 



thaginians chose to impose upon hirii. The embassy was un- 
successful. The Carthaginians naturally thought that to save 
himself he would advise Kome to conclude peace. Instead of 
this, he advised his countrymen to continue the war and in his 
strict regard for the fulfillment of his promise, returned to 



THE ROMAN E3IPIRE 

AT THE END OF THE 

First Punic War, 211 C.C. 

SCALE OF MILES 







" " B e/t « » I A '■■'Si?? -W '*"""-* - '-• ' 




^- "^-l'~^)f 




Wi-st '.'11 



Carthage to suffer the punishment which was the lot of prison- 
ers of war. According to the legend, he received this punish- 
ment in full, being put to death Avith tortures. 

The Second Punic War (218-202 B.C.). — In the interval 
between the First and Second Punic Wars, Rome acquired the 
northern part of Italy, known as Cisal'pine Gaul, sending three 
successive armies against the barbarians of that region and 
completely defeating them. In the meanwhile the Cartha- 
ginians, who were dissatisfied with the treaty that had con- 
cluded the previous war with Rome, had tried to make up for 
the loss of Sicily by conquering southern Spain. Under their 



146 • GENERAL HISTORY 

general, Hamilcar Barca, they succeeded in this enterprise, and 
turned southern Spain into a dependency of Carthage. 

The genius of Hamilcar was inherited by his son Hannibal, 
whom his father had obliged to swear eternal enmity to Rome. 
Hannibal completed the schemes of his father, and established 
the Carthaginian empire in Spain. At the age of twenty-six 
he assumed the command of the entire Carthaginian army in 
the Spanish peninsula, and soon afterwards captured the city 
of Saguntum, which was an ally of Kome. This caused Rome 
to declare war, and the conflict which followed was known as 
the Second Panic War, beginning in 218 b.c. and ending in 
202 B.C. 

Hannibal's Passage of the Alps. — Hannibal determined to 

carry the war into Italy. To do this, he had to fight his way 

through Spain and cross the Alps, which were regarded as an 

impassable barrier between Italy and the North. In this he 

succeeded, although he lost one half of his 

troops and almost all the beasts of burden 

in the passage. This is justly regarded as 

one of the greatest military feats in history. 

In modern times Napoleon accomplished it, 

but both he and his historians have accounted 

it one of the best proofs of his genius, that 

he, in the nineteenth century, should be able 

to do what Hannibal had accomplished in the 

Hannibal third ccutury B.C. Hannibal crossed the Alps 

probably by way of what is now known as 

the Little St. Bernard Pass. The Gauls on the Italian side 

of the Alps welcomed him as their deliverer, and he was soon 

in the plains of northern Italy. 

Hannibal in Italy. — The Romans were taken wholly by sur- 
prise by Hannibal's appearance in Italy. They sent an army 
against him under Cornelius Scipio, and the two forces met 
near the river Tici'nus, a northern branch of the river Po. 
The Romans were routed and soon afterwards suffered another 
defeat at the river Trebia. In the following year, 217 b.c, 




FOREIGN CONQUESTS 147 

Hannibal won another victory at Lake Trasume'nus. These 
successes opened the way to Rome, and Hannibal seemed on 
the point of destroying forever the Roman power. But he 
thought it was better to make sure of success by winning over 
the tribes of eastern Italy to his side and opening communica- 
tions with the Carthaginians. Accordingly he marched toward 
the south, and did not direct his course toward Rome. 

The Romans now chose as their general Quintus Fabius 
Maximus, whom they made dictator. The policy of Fabius 
was one of delay. He is known in Roman history as the 
'Delayer' (Cunctator). He dared not risk an open fight with 
the great general, but contented himself with harassing his 
army and wearing him out by delay. Fabius persisted in this 
in spite of all efforts on the part of Hannibal to draw him into 
an engagement. The wisdom of this course was soon apparent ; 
for when the Romans actually did venture to fight the Cartha- 
ginians on the field of Cannae (216 e.g.), they suffered one of 
the most serious losses they had ever experienced, and their 
defeat was complete. Up to this time there had been much 
discontent with the policy of Fabius at Rome, but after the 
news of the battle of Cannae the peopJe began to trust him. 
Many of Rome's allies remained loyal, and in spite of the suc- 
cess of the invader she was still able to resist him. 

Whether Hannibal could have destroyed his enemy by a 
march on Rome has always remained a disputed question. 
Apparently he did not think it was possible, and he contented 
himself with the capture of the second city of the peninsula, 
that is, Cap'ua. Here he and his army spent the winter, and 
it is said that his troops were weakened by the vices and in- 
dulgences to which they were tempted in this luxurious town. 

The Romans in Africa. — Realizing the impossibility of dis- 
lodging Hannibal from their own country, the Romans finally 
determined to carry the war into Africa. In Italy, however, 
they gained some success. They won a victory over Han- 
nibal in 215 B.C., and in 211 b.c. captured the city of Capua. 
The hero of the African campaign was Publius Cornelius 



148 



GENERAL HISTORY 



Scipio, whose first efforts were directed to driving out the 
Carthaginians from Spain. This he accomplished, and although 
a Carthaginian army was able to leave Spain for Italy, it was 
defeated by the Romans in 207 b.c. Having driven out the 
Carthaginians from the Spanish peninsula, Scipio returned to 
Rome and was appointed to the office of consul in 205 b.c. He 
now determined to invade Africa. Landing on the coast, he 



vrj/". 



50 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE 

AT THE END OF THE 

Second Punic War, 201 B.C. 

SCALE OF MILES 




Longitude 10 



was joined by the king of Numidia, and with the troops of the 
latter as his allies marched against the Carthaginians. Han- 
nibal was now recalled to Carthage, and led the army that 
opposed the march of the invading Romans. The two armies 
met at Zama in 202 b.c, and at last the Romans defeated Han- 
nibal. 

Result of the Second Punic War. — Carthage was obliged to 
consent to very hard terms. She gave up to Rome all her pos- 
sessions in Spain, together with the islands in the Mediterra- 
nean, and promised to pay an annual tribute for the term of 



FOREIGN CONQUESTS 149 

fifty years and to destroy all but a few of her ships of war. 
This victory won for Scipio the title of Africa'nus and secured 
for him one of the finest triumphs that a Roman general had 
ever received. 

Hannibal and Scipio. — In spite of the great services that 
Hannibal had rendered his country, he was extremely unpopu- 
lar after his defeat. He was obliged to leave Carthage and 
seek refuge in Asia Minor, but it seemed as if he could 
find no corner of the world in which he was safe from the 
Roman thirst for vengeance. Finally, after he had taken 
refuge in Bithynia, Rome decided that the ruler of that coun- 
try must give him up. Hannibal, rather than fall into the- 
hands of the Romans, took his own life by drinking poison. 
The one purpose of his life had been to avenge the insolence 
of Rome towards his city, and at no time in her history did 
Rome come so near destruction as during the period of Hanni- 
bal's occupation of Italy. To the end, he never relaxed his 
hatred toward Rome. 

Scipio, though victorious, was treated with equal ingratitude 
by his countrymen. After winning the victory at Zama, he 
returned to Rome, where he took an active part in the politics 
of the city. His success as a general had raised up many ene- 
mies against him, and, he was charged with corruption. He 
left Rome in disgust and returned to his country seat in Cam- 
pania, where he died in the same year in which Hannibal's 
death occurred (183 B.C.). 

Conquest of Macedonia and Syria. — At the close of the Second 
Punic War (202 b.c), Rome was supreme in the west and was 
ready to carry her conquests over the eastern countries. First, 
she became engaged in a war with Philip III., king of Mace- 
donia, on the pretext that Philip had given aid to the Cartha- 
ginians. The Greek leagues were anxious to rid themselves 
of the Macedonian yoke and to join the side of Rome. The 
Roman general Flamini'nus defeated Philip in the battle of 
Cynosceph'alae in Thessaly in the year 197 e.g., and the power 
of Macedonia was broken, Rome succeeding to her place. 
Colby's gen. hist. — 10 



150 GENERAL HISTORY , 

The Greek cities found that they had merely exchanged the 
Macedonian for the Roman supremacy, and soon revolted against 
Rome, obtaining the aid of Anti'ochus III., king of Syria, who 
had offended the Romans by sheltering Hannibal after the lat- 
ter had fled from Carthage. In the battle of Magne'sia the 
Romans defeated Antiochus and made him give up all his 
Asiatic possessions, which were formed into a kingdom depend- 
ent upon Rome. 

Soon after this, war broke out between the Romans and Per- 
seus, the son and successor of the Macedonian king Philip III. 
The Romans in this war completed the conquest of Macedonia, 
winning a decisive victory under Lucius Aemi'lius Paulus at 
Pydna (168 B.C.). After the destruction of the Macedonian 
monarchy, Rome enjoyed a protectorate over the Greek states, 
but her government was so unjust and oppressive that the 
Achaean League revolted. In 146 b.c. the Roman consul Mum- 
mius, .having invaded Greece, captured the city of Corinth and 
razed it to the ground. After this Greece became merely a 
Roman province under the name of Achaea. 

The Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.). — Although the Second 
Punic War had left Carthage in a condition of weakness and 
humiliation, Rome was in constant dread lest she should regain 
her former power and again become a rival. Nothing would 
do but that the city should be destroyed. Every sign of a 
return of prosperity to Carthage was viewed with jealousy at 
Rome. The old Roman Cato was especially bitter in his de- 
nunciation of Carthage, and wearied the ears of the senators 
by the incessant repetition of the words, " Carthage must be 
destroyed." Finally, the Carthaginians took up arms against 
Masinis'sa, an ally of Rome, who had repeatedly encroached 
upon the rights of the Carthaginians. Rome chose to regard 
this as a breach of the treaty which had closed the Second 
Punic War, and a Roman army was sent to Africa. It was 
demanded of Carthage that she should surrender her arms and 
ships of war. This the Carthaginians did, but the Roman 
demands became more excessive. The Carthaginians were re- 



FOREIGN CONQUESTS 151 

quired to abandon their city, and when they refused to consent 
to this Kome prepared to lay siege to it. 

The defense of the city was conducted with great heroism, 
the women and children aiding in the work. It is said that 
the sacred vessels in the temples and the cooking utensils of 
the dwelling houses were melted down and turned into weap- 
ons. At all events, when the Romans attacked the city they 
found that the inhabitants ^had somehow managed to arm 
themselves. The Romans were repulsed at first, but they 
hemmed in the city by land and sea and after a siege of four 
years succeeded in taking it. During the last part of the siege 
the Roman general was Scipio the Younger, the adopted son 
of Scipio, the conqueror of Hannibal. The city was com- 
pletely destroyed by fire in spite of Scipio's wish to preserve 
it; for the Roman Senate was relentless and demanded that 
not a trace of Carthage should be left. So complete was the 
work of destruction that for centuries the site of Carthage was 
uncertain, and it was only in recent times that its remains 
were excavated. They were found to be covered with a layer 
of ashes and to contain many bits of iron, probably fragments 
of weapons used in the siege. Only a tenth of the inhabitants 
had survived the siege, and these were sold into slavery. 
There is hardly a parallel in history to this sudden and com- 
plete extinction of an empire. 

Roman Conquests. — Although the conquests of Greece and 
Carthage were the principal events of this period, Rome had 
other wars on her hands and spread her empire over a wide 
extent of territory, both in the East and in the West. At the 
beginning of the period in 266 b.c, her empire was limited to 
the peninsula of Italy. At the close of it she ruled southern 
Europe from the Black Sea to the Atlantic Ocean, and a large 
part of northern Africa. Thus the basin of the Mediterranean 
Sea was completely under her influence, and besides this she 
was the dominant power in Asia Minor. 

In Spain, where Scipio had such success before Hannibal 
was recalled from Italy, Rome had some difficulty in repress- 



152 GENERAL HISTORY 

ing the spirit of freedom among the native tribes. There was 
a war of nine years, from 149 b.c. to 140 b.c, with the Lusi- 
tanians, who inhabited the modern Portugal, and the Eomans 
were successful only after the chief of the repulsed tribe, Viri- 
athus, had been assassinated. Another long war followed, 
between 143 and 133 b.c, with the Celtiberians, whose capital 
city was Numantia, but after varying fortunes the war closed 
with the capture of this city by the Romans under the leader- 
ship of Scipio the Younger, the conqueror of Carthage. 

Effects of the Conquests. — The conquered territory was formed 
into provinces, which were commanded by officers sent out from 
Rome. These provinces retained their own laws and customs, 
but were completely subject to Rome, and were obliged to pay 
an annual tribute. This tribute or tax was collected by a class 
called publicans, who engaged to pay in a certain amount 
to the Roman treasury, but were to keep for themselves all 
that they raised in excess of this amount. This practice gave 
rise to great oppression and injustice, for a greedy publican 
would be apt to extort more money from the natives than 
they could justly be required to pay. But in spite of this 
difficult system of collecting taxes, a vast amount of wealth 
poured' constantly into the Roman treasury. One result of 
this was that it enabled Rome to carry out a great system 
of public works. Italy had become a perfect network of mili- 
tary roads, which remain to this day models of the art of road 
building ; and the public buildings of Rome, its sewers, aque- 
ducts, and bridges, are among the most splendid works of 
antiquity. 

Another result of this wealth was to corrupt the independent 
and industrious spirit of the Roman citizens. There was a 
great increase of luxury and of display. The incentive to 
industry was removed ; men looked less to their own exertions 
than to the spoils of conquest for the acquisition of wealth. 
Slavery became far more generally practiced than before. 
Most of the large plantations were worked by slaves, of whom 
the number was greatly increased by the foreign wars. The 



FOREIGN CONQUESTS 



153 



independent Roman cultivator of the soil disappeared, and the 
work was largely done by slave labor. Moreover, there was a 
constantly increasing class of people in the city who looked 



f-i^'SJliu ai4ti4^^ 







Roman Aqueduct near NImes, in France 

to the State for their support. To satisfy the demands of this 
class and possibly to prevent a dangerous uprising, the govern- 
ment permitted the giving of largesses or the public distribu- 
tion of alms on a very extensive scale. This was naturally an 
encouragement of the very evil it was supposed to check. 

Another effect of the conquest was to bring Rome into con- 
tact with foreign civilizations. The effect of Greek culture on 
Rome was especially marked, and there 
was a host of Greek scholars, tragedians, 
rhetoricians, schoolmasters, and philoso- 
phers in the city. Formerly the old nar- 
row provincial spirit of Rome had despised 

the culture of the Greeks, and some of Ancient Roman Plow 

her ablest men continued to abuse it as 
certain to induce Greek effeminacy. Nevertheless, Greek lit- 
erature and art became more and more fashionable at Rome, 




154 GENERAL HISTORY 

and there is scarcely a Roman writer of note who does not 
bear traces of their influence. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Character of the Period : Foreign Wars. — The Carthaginians : Ri- 
valry of Rome and Carthage. The Occasion of the War. — First Punic 
War, 264-241 b.c. : Founding of the Roman Navy. Roman Victories. 
Story of Regulus. —Second Punic War, 218-202 b.c. : The Romans 
acquire Cisalpine Gaul. Carthaginian Successes in Spain. — Hanni- 
bal's Passage of the Alps. — Hannibal in Italy : His Victories at the 
Ticinus, the Trebia, and Lake Trasumenus. Fabius and his Policy 
of Delay. Hannibal's Victory at Cannae, 216 b.c. The Winter at 
Capua. — The Romans in Africa : Roman Successes. Scipio in Spain. 
The War in Africa. Roman Victory at Zama, 202 b.c. — Result of 
the Second Punic War : Hard Terms imposed on the Carthaginians. — 
Hannibal and Scipio : Ingratitude shov^^n them. Their Death. — 
Conquest of Macedonia and Syria: War v^^ith Philip HI. of Mace- 
donia. Roman Victory at Cynoscephalae, 197 b.c. Conquest of 
Syria. Final Overthrow of the Macedonians at Pydna, 168 b.c. 
Greece a Roman Province. — Third Punic War, 149-146 b.c. : Harsh- 
ness of the Romans. The Pretext for the War. Siege of Carthage 
by Scipio the Younger. Heroism of the Carthaginians. Destruction 
of the City. — Roman Conquests : Their Wide Extent. Conquest of 
Spain completed. — Effects of the Conquests : Administration of the 
Provinces. The Publicans. — Great Wealth of Rome and its Effects : 
Public Works. Luxury. Increase of Slavery. — Demoralization of 
the People : Influence of Greek Civilization. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 

133-27 B.C. 

Social Condition. — In the last half of the second century b.c, 
Rome was in a wretched condition. All power was in the hands 
of the wealthy classes, and the number of the poor was continu- 
ally increasing. Slave labor had supplanted the work of the 



THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 155 

honest Roman peasant. A few aristocratic families held all 
the public lands and great crowds of people swarmed in the 
cities, especially in Rome, and subsisted for the most part on 
the money paid for their votes. A poor man found it hard to 
earn a living, and he became far too dependent upon the public 
distribution of bread for his support. 

The Gracchi. — It will be remembered that the Licinian Law 
regulated the amount of public land which could be held by a 
single citizen. In spite of this law, members of the wealthy 
classes held a far larger amount of the land than was legally 
permissible. Stirred by the sufferings of the lower classes, 
Tibe'rius Gracchus proposed a law to limit the amount of land 
which a single citizen could hold and to distribute the rest 
among the poorer classes in small homesteads. This law was 
passed by the people. At this time Gracchus held the office of 
tribune, and in order to carry the law into effect it was neces- 
sary that he should be reelected. The wealthy classes opposed 
this, and when his name came up for reelection, they gathered 
a mob, fell upon him and his adherents, and murdered him 
and 300 of his followers (133 b.c). 

Ten years later Gains Gracchus, the younger brother of 
Tiberius, took up the cause of the people and secured the pas- 
sage of an Agrarian Law and of a law for the sale of grain at 
less than cost to all citizens who might choose to apply for 
it. He also demanded other important reforms, and, among 
them, the granting of the right of voting to the Latins and even 
to the Italians. Like Tiberius Gracchus, he was a tribune of 
the people ; but in 121 b.c. he lost his position and in a riot 
which followed was killed by the party of the nobles, together 
with about 3000 of his adherents. 

Such was the fate of the Gracchi. They were sincere men, 
striving to improve the condition of the poor people of Rome ; 
but to the aristocratic party they seemed too radical, and they 
were sacrificed to the fury of their enemies. 

War with Jugurtha. — For a few years after the death of the 
Gracchi, Rome enjoyed peace, but the ruling class was corrupt 



and the administration of the government was marked by ex- 
travagance. In 111 B.C. the city was involved in a war with 
Jugur'tha, the adopted son of the king of Numidia. Jugurtha, 
being ambitious of power, had killed one of the king's sons, 
who was the rightful heir to the throne. Another son applied 
to Eome for aid. Eome interfered on behalf of the rightful suc- 
cessor of their ally, but Jugurtha by judicious bribes escaped 
punishment and ruled the kingdom. A Koman army was sent 
against him, but he bribed the general and the expedition 
amounted to nothing. Finally the anger of all the people led 
to the appointment of Quintus Metel'lus as general, and he 
defeated Jugurtha in 108 b.c. Then the command of the army 
was transferred to Gains Marius, and the latter brought the 
war to an end, conquering the African chief, who was brought 
as a prisoner to Rome. Thus Marius secured a triumph and 
became the idol of the popular party at Kome. His glory was 
shared by one of his officers, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who after- 
wards became the rival of Marius and the leader of the aristo- 
cratic party. 

The Cimbri and Teutones. — The Cimbri and Teu'tones were 
two great hordes of barbarians, numbering, according to 
some accounts, about 300,000 fighting men who had left 
their home in the Alpine regions to the north of Italy and, 
after conquering the Gauls, actually threatened Italy. Several 
Roman armies were sent against them and defeated, and the 
barbarians in 103 b.c. planned to subdue Italy. The popular 
party attributed the defeats of the Roman armies to the mis- 
management of the aristocratic party, and Marius was now 
chosen consul in order to avert the danger to the state. The 
barbarians attacked him in his camp, but Marius drove them 
back. He then followed them up and defeated them in two 
great battles in 103 and 101 b.c. It is said that more 
than 100,000 of the barbarians were killed in the second 
battle and about 60,000 taken prisoners and carried to Rome 
to be sold as slaves. For these great services Marius was 
regarded as the savior of his country. 



THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 157 

The Social War. — It has already been shown that the Ital- 
ian allies of Rome were not admitted to the same rights, as 
Roman citizens. Having fought in Roman wars and won 
victories for the benefit and for the glory of Rome, the Ital- 
ians, as was natural, demanded the same rights as the Roman 
people. The refusal to grant these demands led to the war 
known as the Italian or Social War (90-88 b.c). The Italians 
formed a republic for themselves, but Rome sent her armies 
to bring them back to their allegiance. The Italians had the 
juster cause; for they were of the same race, language, and 
religion as the Romans, and in all essentials were their equals. 
Rome, however, was successful in this as in most of her con- 
tests, but she gained the victory more by policy than by arms; 
for she promised the rights of full citizenship to all who did 
not take part in the war. At the end of this war (88 b.c.) all 
Italy to the south of Cisalpine Gaul, with the exception of 
the Lucanians and the Samnites, acquired the same rights as 
Roman citizens. 

Sulla and Marius. — Sulla, who had been an officer in the 
army of Marius, became his rival in political affairs at Rome 
and was chosen by the nobles or senatorial party as their 
leptder. For many years there was a struggle for mastery 
between the popular party, whose chief was Marius, and this 
aristocratic faction, headed by Sulla. After the Social War 
there arose serious trouble in Pontus in Asia Minor, where 
Mithrida'tes, the king, had conquered several of the Roman 
allies and had caused the murder of nearly 70,000 Roman 
citizens. Marius and Sulla both desired the command of the 
expedition against Mithridates, but Sulla finally prevailed, and 
when his opponents tried to set aside his election, marched 
against Rome and forced Marius to flee into Africa. Sulla 
was completely successful against Mithridates, and forced the 
Greek states which had joined forces with the Asiatic ruler 
back into submission. While Sulla was absent, Marius re- 
turned to Italy and took a terrible revenge upon the adherents 
of his rival. The consul was murdered and the leaders of the 



158 GENERAL HISTORY 

aristocratic party were forced to flee from Rome. Mariirs died 
before the return of Sulla, but his party still continued in 
power. 

When Sulla heard of the events at Rome, he made peace 
with Mithridates (83 b.c.) and returned to the city. His 
revenge was no less bloody than that of Marius. He caused 
the body of Marius to be taken from its tomb and thrown into 
the river Anio. Hundreds of the supporters of Marius were 
assassinated, and it is said that in Rome alone 3000 people 
were killed and their property conti seated. 

The Career of Sulla. — Sulla was proclaimed dictator of Rome 
for an unlimited period (81 b.c). He used his power for the 
benefit of the aristocratic party, and he ruled as an Oriental 
despot. But he wearied of the duties of his office and resigned 
in three years. He died in 78 b.c. The spirit of the man is 
well shown by the epitaph which he caused to be inscribed on 
his monument: "I am Sulla the Fortunate, who have sur- 
passed both friends and enemies ; the former by the good, the 
latter by the evil, I have done them." 

The War in Spain. — From 77 to 72 B.C. there was a serious 
revolt in Spain under a brave general named Sertorius. At 
times it seemed as if the entire peninsula would be lost to 
Rome, but the command of the Roman army in Spain was in 
the hands of an energetic general named Pompey, who suc- 
ceeded in capturing city after city. As he conquered prov- 
inces he placed in command of them men on whom he could 
rely as friends of the Roman state. 

Spartacus. — Another revolt nearer home was that of the 
gladiators. This class of men comprised prisoners of .war who 
were trained to fight combats in public for the pleasure of the 
Roman mob. One of this degraded class, Spartacus, stirred up 
his comrades to revolt, and, aided by a large number of dis- 
contented men, ravaged the country and threatened Rome. A 
Roman general named Marcus Crassus defeated them in 71 b.c, 
and Spartacus was killed. Pompey, however, had the glory of 
bringing the war to a close. He followed up the remnant of 




THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 159 

the gladiators, who were about 5000 strong, and cut them to 
pieces. 

Pompey's Campaigns. — At this time, that is, in the first half 
of the first century B.C., the history of Rome becomes more and 
more identified with the lives of prominent Roman citizens. 
Rome was fast approaching the time when one of her great 
generals or statesmen would assume the entire 
control of the city. The old liberties of Rome 
were dead ; patriotism had disappeared ; and 
the attention of the public was directed away 
from good government at home to .conquests 
abroad. Men who had the ability to win these 
conquests could secure almost anything they 
pleased from their countrymen at home. 
Pompey was one of the men who, having dis- 
tinguished himself in foreign wars, was looked 
upon as the natural leader of the city. He 
increased his already great reputation by his 
victory over the pirates of the Mediterranean, who had rav- 
aged the coasts of Asia Minor and had become so daring that 
they attacked the towns on the Italian coast. Worse than 
this, they intercepted the ships which brought grain to Rome. 
Pompey secured complete command of the territory infested 
by the pirates, and within three months he succeeded in break- 
ing up their power. It is said that he put 10,000 of them 
to death and captured 3000 of their vessels. 

Soon after this he was chosen as the general to command in 
the war against Mithridates. In this campaign he was no less 
successful. The war lasted from 66 to 64 b.c, ending with the 
complete overthrow of Mithridates, whoin Pompey put to flight 
and who finally committed suicide. As a result of Pompey 's 
expedition in the East, all western Asia was reduced to subjec- 
tion. On account of these successes he became the idol of his 
countrymen. No general had ever enjoyed such a triumph as 
that which was granted to him on his return to Rome. It is 
said that hundreds of princes walked as captives in his tri- 



160 



GENERAL HISTORY 



umphal procession. It was his boast that he had conquered 
Africa, Europe, and Asia, thus completing for Rome the con- 
quest of the world. 

Party Strife in Rome. — During the years that followed the 
death of Sulla, Eome was the victim of constant party struggles. 
On the one side was the aristocratic party, which was conserv- 
ative in temper ; on the other was the popular party. At the 

head of the army was Pompey, 
whose friend and representa- 
tive during his absence in Asia 
was Marcus Tullius Cicero, the 
foremost orator in Rome. The 
leader of the popular party 
was Julius Caesar, who in a 
few years was destined to 
prove himself the greatest of 
the Romans and one of the 
most remarkable men of all 
/ / . I i \ time. Besides these well-de- 
r //! '^ ' / I ^ fined parties, there were vari- 
'^ «i -'^ i/-' - ^ ^^^g discontented elements in 

(JlCEEO 1 • 1 1 • 

the state, which, being com- 
posed of disreputable or anarchistic men, were opposed to any 
stable form of government. 

To this latter class belongs Cat'iline, whose conspiracies at 
one time threatened to overturn the government. Catiline was 
a young patrician who had been in the service of Sulla and 
had distinguished himself by his bravery as well as by his 
vices. Wishing to secure for himself and his partisans the 
control of the forces of the city, he planned during Pom- 
pey's absence to murder the consul Cicero and burn Rome. 
This plot, however, was betrayed to Cicero, who denounced 
Catiline with such vigorous eloquence that he was obliged to 
flee from Rome. He was accompanied by many of his revo- 
lutionary companions, but they were overtaken before they had 
proceeded far and were slain in 62 b.c. 




THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 161 

The First Triumvirate. — Foiiipey was a weak and vacillating 
politician, and he owed his fame more to good luck than to any 
very extraordinary ability. Caesar succeeded in winning him 
over to his views, and formed with him an alliance against 
the aristocratic party in Rome as represented by the Senate. 
What is known as the First Triumvirate was a union be- 
tween Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, for the purpose of further- 
ing their own ends. All real power in Rome was in the hands 
of these three men, and the chief offices of the state were 
divided among them. Caesar secured the consulship in 59 B.C., 
and after the expiration of his term of office became the pro- 
consul of Gaul for five years, this term afterwards being pro- 
longed through his efforts for another five years. Pompey 
obtained the command of Spain, and Crassus of Syria, but the 
main interest of history for the next few years centers in the 
career of Caesar in Gaul. 

Caesar's Gallic Campaigns. — From 58 to 50 B.C. Caesar was 
engaged in subduing the barbarous tribes of Gaul, and he has 
left us a record of his campaigns in his famous Commentaries 
on the Gallic War. He saw that there was a chance for him 
to win great military renown, and he improved every oppor- 
tunity. At this time Gaul on the Italian side of the Alps 
was already a Roman province; but among the barbarians 
to the north, although there were some allies of Rome, little 
reverence was felt for the Roman name. In two years Caesar 
succeeded in reducing them to submission. 

But there were other enemies of Gauls and Romans alike on 
the other side of the Rhine. These were the Germans, whose 
aggression on the Gauls caused the latter to appeal to Caesar 
for aid. Caesar drove the Germans across the Rhine, but did 
not effect any permanent conquest on their own land, although 
lie established a barrier against them which endured for sev- 
eral hundred years. From Gaul Caesar made two expeditions 
against Britain, where he defeated the natives but did not 
bring them under the control of Rome. On his return to Gaul, 
he was called upon to put down a serious rebellion of the 



162 GENERAL HISTORY 

Gallic tribes. In this he was successful. As a result of his 
campaigns in Gaul, the entire country from the Pyrenees 
Mountains to the lihine was subdued and for several centuries 
remained a Roman province. 

Pompey and Crassus. — While Caesar was in Gaul, Pompey 
and Crassus, the other two members of the Triumvii-ate, ruled 
as consuls during the year 55 b.c. Crassus then set out for 
Syria, but was killed in the course of a campaign in Parthia. 
Thus Caesar and Pompey remained as the sole leaders of the 
Roman people. It was natural that a bitter rivalry should 
arise between them; for Caesar continued the leader of the 
democratic party, while Pompey returned to the aristocratic 
party to which he formerly had belonged. The latter remained 
in Rome, and, while he watched with anxiety the success of 
his rival in Gaul, did all he could to win the favor of his 
fellow-citizens. He distributed alms freely and spent large 
sums of money on the public games. The nobles were natu- 
rally on the side of Pompey ; for they feared the growing power 
of Caesar, who was the democratic champion. It was soon 
evident that Caesar intended to stand for the consulship ; for 
as his command in Gaul would expire in 49 b.c, unless he 
were in the meantime chosen to an office, he would have to 
fall back to the rank of a private citizen. The friends of 
Pompey determined to prevent Caesar's becoming consul, and 
required that before he ran for the office he should lay down 
his command of the armies of Gaul. To this Caesar replied 
that he would take this step if Pompey also would lay down 
his military command. The Senate refused to consent to this, 
and demanded that Caesar should resign and disband the army 
on a certain day. 

Crossing the Rubicon. — At this crisis it was a matter of 
very serious concern what Caesar's decision would be. If he 
refused to obey the Senate's order, he would be in effect a 
traitor to the state. On the other hand, if he did obey and 
disbanded his army, he would merely be a private citizen 
again, and his enemies would have the complete control of 



THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 



163 



affairs. Caesar knew, moreover, that all the soldiers in his 
army were sincerely devoted to him. He knew, too, from 
long experience of their good discipline and valor, that by 
their aid he could accomplish almost anything that he chose. 
Accordingly he did not wait long to make up his mind. With 
a body of veteran troops he left his headquarters at Ravenna 
and advanced to the little river Rubicon, which divided his 
province from Italy proper. If he crossed the stream, it 
amounted really to a declaration of war. With the full knowl- 
edge of this he crossed the 
river, exclaiming : " The 
die is cast ! " 

Civil War. — In a short 
time Caesar was master 
of all Italy, for Pompey 
and his friends fled in hot 
haste across the Adriatic 
Sea to Greece. He hoped 
in the East, which was 
the scene of his former 
victories, to be able to 
gather a large army with 
which to oppose Caesar. 
While Pompey was thus 
engaged, Caesar conquered 
Sicily, Sardinia, and Caesar 

Spain, and then set out 

in pursuit of Pompey. The forces of the two generals met on 
the plain of Pharsalus in Thessaly, and the result of the 
battle was the utter defeat of Pompey, who then fled to 
Egypt, where he was treacherously murdered. This left 
Caesar the sole ruler of the Roman world, — a ruler in fact 
but not in name, for he did not assume the title of king. 
There was still some work for him to do in Africa, where the 
adherents of Pompey held out, and in Asia Minor, where a 
revolt had been started against the Roman power. 




164 GENERAL HISTORY 

In Egypt Caesar took up the cause of Cleopatra, the queen, 
and defeated a younger brother, Ptolemy, with whom she had 
quarreled. Having seen her securely established on the 
throne, Caesar turned his attention to the revolt in Asia 
Minor, which he put down after a brief campaign, recording 
his success in the famous dispatch : Veni, vidi, vici — " I came, 
I saw, I conquered." The last stand of the adherents of 
Pompey was made in Africa and in Spain, but Caesar com- 
pletely overthrew the republican forces at Thapsus in Africa 
(46 B.C.) and at Munda in Spain (45 b.c). 

Caesar as a Civil Ruler. — These events placed all power in 
the hands of Caesar. Rome was from this time forth in effect 
a monarchy; for the republic came to an end when the last 
hopes of Pompey's allies were destroyed in the battle of Thap- 
sus, and when the stern republican Cato killed himself rather 
than see the state transformed to a despotism. Yet Caesar 
preserved all the old forms of the constitution and did not 
assume the name of king, but remained as a dictator, the office 
having been granted to him at first for ten years and later 
made perpetual. He was also allowed to retain the title of 
Imperator (from which our word emperor is derived), which 
up to this time had been merely a temporary title held by a 
victorious general until he laid down his command. 

Although Caesar possessed this absolute power, he governed 
with wisdom and justice. He pardoned those who had been in 
arms against him and broke with the old and narrow policy 
of the state b}^ granting important privileges to the provincials. 
Thus he bestowed the citizenship on the inhabitants of Gaul. 
He did his best to secure an honest administration of the 
provinces ; he adorned Rome with beautiful public buildings, 
and in the short time between his rise to power and his death, 
introduced many important reforms and improvements in all 
departments of the administration. He planned to execute 
still more extensive ones, but was murdered before he had 
time to complete them. 

The Death of Caesar. — Naturally such extraordinary success 



THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 



165 



made him enemies, and though the city seemed in the 
main to be contented with his rule, it was easy for his ill- 
wishers to play on tlie passions of the people by pointing out 
that he had aimed at the complete overthrow of the constitu- 
tion and the establishment of a tyranny. It was said that he 
intended to assume the title of king. Several times a crown 




The Death of (Jaesar 



was publicly offered to him and he refused it ; but his refusal 
was thought to proceed merely from his perception of the 
displeasure of the people. A plot was formed against him, 
and the Ides (loth day) of March, 44 b.c, was fixed upon for 
his assassination. The rumors of the intended murder got 
abroad and Caesar was warned of the plot, but he took no 
notice of these warnings. On the appointed day he was 
surrounded in the Senate by the conspirators and killed. 
Among the assassins was one whom Caesar had always 
regarded as his especial friend. This was Brutus, and it is 
said that Caesar, when he recognized him among his assailants, 



COLBY'S GEN. HIST. 



11 



166 GENERAL HISTORY 

ceased to offer resistance, and exclaiming, " Thou too, Brutus ! " 
allowed himself to be slain. 

The Greatness of Caesar. — In Shakespeare's play Caesar is 
styled "the foremost man of all the world," and the title 
seems to be deserved; for he was great not only as a general, 
but as a statesman and an author. To summarize his exploits 
as a general, it may be mentioned that he conquered Gaul, 
invaded Britain and Germany, conquered Spain, scattered the 
forces of Pompey, subdued Egypt, routed the King of Pontus, 
and crushed out the final opposition of Pompey 's adherents 
in the battles of Thapsus and Munda. It is said that he fought 
fifty pitched battles, in which the lives of over a million men 
were lost. 

His merit as a statesman is twofold. He had, in the first 
place, the wisdom to see that Rome ought no longer to 
endure the mob rule from which she was suffering during 
the period of civil strife, and that the time had come for the 
establishment of a one-man power in the state. In the second 
place, when he gained this jjower, although it was absolute, he 
did not use it for selfish or unwise ends. He used it for the 
public good, and though the time of his rule was short, he did 
work of lasting benefit which won for him fame as a statesman 
equal to, or even greater, than his fame as a general. His title 
to literary renown rests upon his two books, the one on the civil 
war and the other on the Gallic war. The latter is an almost 
perfect model of concise and graphic historical writing, and 
remains to this day a familiar classic of literature. 

Antonius and Octavius. — The conspirators who struck down 
Caesar gained nothing by their act. His colleague in the con- 
sulship was ]Mark Antony (Marcus Anto'nius), who, in an elo- 
quent oration at the funeral of Caesar, aroused the feelings of 
the multitude against the conspirators to such a pitch of fury 
that the latter were obliged to leave Rome. Antony, for a 
time, was the foremost man in the city, but he had a danger- 
ous rival in the young Octavius, whom Caesar had made his 
heir, bequeathing to him both his name and his property. 



THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 



167 



Octavius, or, to give him the name to which he was entitled 
on the cleatli of Caesar, Gains Julius C'aesar Octavianus, was 
at this time but eighteen years of age. When the news of 
Caesar's death reached him, he was pursuing his studies at 
Apollonia, and the veteran troops stationed at that place, 
were ready to support him loyally as the heir and adopted son 
of their old general. On Caesar's death Antony appropriated 
his wealth, and it was thought at first that Octavius would 




THE ROMAN E3IPIRE 

AT THE 

Death of Caesar, U B.C. 

SCALE OF MILES 







lead an army against Rome and seek vengeance. Instead of 
this, however, he came to Rome with only a few followers. 
Antony's reckless and dishonest conduct had brought him into 
public disfavor. Octavius and he were soon at odds, but were 
finally reconciled. 

The Second Triumvirate. — As a result of their agreement, 
the Second Triumvirate was formed, comprising Antony, 
Octavius, and Lepidus, who possessed all the powers of gov- 
ernment. Almost their first act was to draw up a list of 300 



168 GENERAL HISTORY 

senators and 2000 knights of the hostile party to be put 
death. The first name on the list of senators was Cicero's, and 
he perished in the wholesale massacre that followed. One 
object of forming the Triumvirate was to crush the forces of 
the murderers of Caesar. Brutus and Cassius, the leaders of 
the conspirators, had fled to the East, and had there gathered 
a considerable force. Antony and Octavius went over to 
Macedonia and met the army of the republicans at Philippi 
(42 B.C.), and there won a decisive victory. After this defeat 
Brutus and Cassius killed themselves, and all hope of a 
restoration of the republic was lost. The Koman world was 
divided between the triumvirs, Antony governing in the 
East, Octavius in the West, and Lepidus in Africa. Lepidus 
was a man of weak character and slight ability, and his share 
soon passed into the hands of his colleagues. 

The Overthrow of Antony. — Antony's governmeut in the 
East had been unwise and oppressive. He made his head- 
quarters at Alexandria, and there coming under the influence 
of the famous Egyptian queen, Cleopatra, he seems to have 
lost all ambition and prudence. Finally, when he had insulted 
Octavius by divorcing his wife, Octavius' sister, and had an- 
gered the people by giving Roman provinces to Cleopatra, the 
peace between him and Octavius came to an end. Both sides 
made preparations for war, and the first decisive battle was 
fought off the promontory of Actium on an inlet of the 
Ambracian Gulf (31 b.c). It is said that Cleopatra deserted 
Antony's side in this battle, and that Antony, seeing her take 
flight, gave up the fight and followed her. At all events, the 
battle of Actium was a complete victory for Octavius, to whom 
both the fleet and the army of Antony at once surrendered. 
Antony followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, but Octavius pursued 
them and laid siege to the city. Deserted by his troops and 
deceived by the rumor that Cleopatra had committed suicide, 
Antony killed himself. Cleopatra, fearing that she would be 
brought as a captive to Rome, also committed suicide. 

Octavius. — Octavius was now without a rival. The Senate 



TIIF, PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 169 

had sunk to the position of a servile body and all its powers 
were exercised by a sort of Privy Council, composed of the 
friends of Octavius. On his return to Rome, he received three 
triumphs. The Senate was willing to grant him all the powers 
that he desired. He avoided, however, the kingly title, and 
even resigned his command in the army, but he was requested 
to resume it for a period of ten years, and the term was after- 
wards continued. Though nominally ruling under the old 
forms, he was really an emperor, and the date 27 b.c, when 
the title of Augustus was bestowed upon him, may be taken 
as marking the beginning of the imperial monarchy. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Period of Civil Strife. — Social Conditions: Increase in the 
Numbers of the Poor. — The Gracchi : The Efforts on Behalf of the Poor. 
Death of Tiberius Gracchus, 138 b.c. Death of Gaius Gracchus, 121 b.c. 

— War with Jugurtha : Bribery of the Romans. The Defeat of Jugur- 
tha, 108 B.C., by Quintus Metellus. The Success of Marius. — The 
Cimbri and Teutones : Their Aggressions in Northern Italy. Their De- 
feat by Marius, 103-101 b.c — The Social War: Rome's Unfair Treat- 
ment of her Allies. Rome successful in the War, but makes Concessions. 

— Sulla and Marius : Sulla the Leader of the Aristocratic, Marius of the 
Democratic Party. Sulla's Overthrow of Mithridates. Marius causes 
the Murder of Sulla's Partisans. Sulla's Revenge. — The Career of Sulla : 
His Despotic Power. His Character. — The War in Spain: Success of 
Pompey, 77-72 b.c. — Spartacus : The Revolt of the Gladiators, Over- 
throw by Crassus and Pompey. — Pompey's Campaigns: Affairs at Rome. 
Pompey the Leading Citizen. His Success in the War with the Pirates. 
His Success against Mithridates. — Party Strife at Home: Prominent 
Men. Cicero. Caesar. Catiline's Conspiracy. — The Eirst Triumvirate : 
Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey. Division of Power. — Caesar's Gallic 
Campaigns, 58-50 b.c. : His Success in Gaul. Expeditions to Britain. 
Complete Subjugation of Gaul. — Pompey and Crassus : Death of Crassus. 
Pompey the Champion of the Aristocratic Party. His Jealousy of Caesar. 
The Senate orders Caesar to lay down his Command. — Crossing the 
Rubicon : Caesar refuses to obey the Senate and enters Italy. — Civil 
War : Italy in Caesar's Power. Defeat of Pompey at Pharsalus. Final 
Overthrow of the Republicans. — Caesar as a Civil Ruler : His Absolute 
Power. His Wise Government. — The Death of Caesar : His Enemies. 
The Ides of March, 44 b.g. — The Greatness of Caesar: Military Genius. 



170 



GENERAL HISTORY 



Statesmanship. Literary Talent. — Antonius and Octavius : Antony's 
Funeral Oration. Antony's Reckless Conduct. Octavius. — The Second 
Triumvirate : Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus. Murder of their Oppo- 
nents. Defeat of the Republicans at Philippi, 42 b.c. — Overthrow of 
Antony : Antony's Folly. Cleopatra. Defeat of Antony at Actium, 
3i B.C. — Octavius: All Power in the State concentrated in his Hands. 
The Empire. 



CHAPTER XXIV 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE 



The Government. — We have seen already that although 

Rome was in re- 
ality an absolute 
monarchy, the 
forms of the re- 
public were con- 
tinued . The 
Senate was still 
kept up and there 
were consuls 
chosen every 
year, but the 
Senate always 
voted as Augus- 
tus wished and 
the consuls and 
other magistrates 
were obliged to 
do the emperor's 
bidding. Augus- 
tus united in him- 
AuGusTus self the functions 

of all the magis- 
trates, both civil and ecclesiastical. His officers were his own 
creatures and for the most part were mere figureheads. He 




THE ROMAN EMPIRE 171 

was careful not to offend the people by assuming the pomp 
appropriate to his great position, and he contented himself 
with having the substance rather than the show of power. 
It was the principle of the Eoman state tliat the emperor 
was the source of all authority. 

The Extent of the Empire. — Augustus is said to have ruled 
over 100,000,000 people living within the confines of the 
empire. The geographical limits of this empire were the 
Atlantic in the west, the Euphriites in the east, the forests 
of Germany in the north, and the African desert in the south. 
In other words, it took in all the civilized Western world. 
Outside of Italy, the empire was divided into provinces, 
which in the time of Augustus numbered twenty-seven and 
may be grouped under the heads of Western or European, 
numbering fourteen, Eastern or Asiatic, numbering eight, and 
Southern or African, numbering five. It will be noted from 
this what a great variety of races must have been comprised 
within the dominion of the emperor. There were in reality 
three distinct civilizations ; viz. the Latin, which included 
the western part of the empire ; the Greek, including both 
Greece proper and the Greek cities of Asia Minor ; and the 
Oriental civilization, including the countries as far east as the 
Euphrates. It was the aim of Augustus to unite these discord- 
ant civilizations into an harmonious whole, and for this purpose 
he traveled throughout his wide domains granting privileges 
here and there, founding colonies, and trying to make all classes 
of his subjects turn to him as the source of all power and 
beneficence. 

The Reign of Augustus. — Augustus ruled for about forty-tAvo 
years, that is, from 27 b.c. to 14 a.d., and this period is known 
in history as the Golden Age of Latin Literature. To it 
belongs the great historian Liv'y ; the poet Vergil, the author of 
the Aeneid; Horace, the writer of many odes, satires, and other 
poems ; Lucre'tius, the philosophical poet ; Catul'lus, the lyrical 
poet ; Sallust, the author of the history of the Jugurthine War 
and of Catiline's conspiracy. Besides these, there are many 



172 



GENERAL HISTORY 



writers who, although they did not flourish until after the 
death of Augustus, were so near his reign in point of time that 
they seem to belong to the Golden Age. Among these are 
the poet Ov'id; Martial, the writer of epigrams; Plin'y, the 
author of a natural history ; Ju'venal, the satirist; and Tac'itus, 
the historian. Augustus and his famous minister, Maece'nas, 
were generous patrons of literature, art, and architecture. 




In regard to external affairs, the policy of Augustus was one 
of peace. He endeavored to persuade the Koman people that 
it was foolish to attempt to push their conquests further. The 
temple of Janus, which, according to the ancient Roman custom, 
was opened in time of war and closed in time of peace, was 
opened only three times during the reign of Augustus. There 
was one war, however, which was of importance as bringing 
the Romans into conflict with the people that were destined 
ultimately to overthrow the empire. This was the war in 
Germany, where Varus, who had tried to force the Teutonic 
tribes to submission, was attacked by them under their chief Ar- 
min'ius or Hermann. The whole army of Varus was destroyed 
and he himself was killed (9 a.d.). This was one of the 
worst disasters that had ever befallen a Roman army, and it 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE 173 

is said that Augustus never ceased to grieve over the de- 
feat, exclaiming in his sorrow: "0 Varus, give me back my 
legions ! " The importance of this event can be better under- 
stood in tracing the whole history of Rome's relations with 
the barbarians. It is sufficient now to state merely that this 
reverse changed the policy of Rome ; henceforth she contented 
herself with a policy of self-defense, maintaining the line of 
the frontier, but not as a rule seeking to extend her power 
beyond it to the north. 

The Augustan Line of Emperors, 14-68 A.D. — One of the 
weaknesses of the Roman state was the lack of a definite law 
of succession. The principle was not firmly established that 
the emperor's son should succeed him, and much of the history 
of the empire is taken up with the wars resulting from disputed 
claims to the throne. It will not be possible within the limits 
of this book to mention, or to give in detail, the reigns of the 
long line of Roman emperors after Augustus. The principal 
emperors, or those in whose reigns some especially striking 
events have taken place, will alone be described. All the 
Roman emperors after Augustus were called by his name, but 
the title Augustus was merely a sign of the office and there 
were only four emperors who actually belonged to his family. 
These emperors of the Augustan line were, in the order of 
their reigns, Tiberius, Calig'ula, Claudius, and Nero. Their 
reigns lasted until 6S a.d. These four emperors were among 
the worst in the history of the Roman Empire. 

The reign of Tiberius is marked by an important change 
affecting the Praetorian guard, a body of 10,000 picked troops. 
They were gathered in a fortified camp near one of the gates 
of the city. Formerly they had been scattered throughout the 
city. This concentration of the guard had a great influence 
upon subsequent history. They soon came really to rule 
Rome, for emperors were set up or deposed according to their 
wishes. 

The reign is also marked by an extreme usurpation of au- 
thority on the part of the emperor. His word was law, and 



174 GENERAL HISTORY 



he could punish with the penalty of death any one of his sub 
jects without trial. A. cruel and licentious ruler, he tired of 
governing after a while and devoted the latter part of his life 
to the gratification of his vices, surrendering the power at 
Rome to one of his friends named Seja'nus. The latter plot- 
ted against his master, who became so suspicious on the dis- 
covery of the conspiracy that hundreds of men and women 
who had taken no part in it were put to death. Finally he 
was killed by one of his servants. 

Caligula was even worse. His savage cruelty was such that 
there seems to be nothing to account for it but a supposition 
of madness. He, too, after a reign of monstrous vice and 
brutal cruelty, was murdered by his own guards. 

His successor, Claudius, was less vicious than Caligula, but 
was weak in character, and wholly under the influence of his 
wife Agrippina, an unprincipled and ambitious woman, who 
finally murdered her husband in order that her own son by a 
previous marriage might come to the throne. In this design 
she was successful, and Nero became emperor. 

Nero inherited all the vices of his mother, and added to them 
many of his own. One of the greatest authors of his time, 
Sen'eca, was put to death as the result of the emperor's 
jealousy. Nero was one of the persecutors of the Christians. 
Down to his reign they were looked upon merely as a Jewish 
sect and were unmolested ; but now that they were discovered 
or recognized as a separate body, they were hunted out, brought 
before the magistrates, and condemned to death in large num- 
bers. Their execution was accompanied with tortures. Some 
were killed by wild beasts, others nailed to crosses or burnt 
alive. In Nero's reign occurred the great fire. He was long 
supposed to have caused it himself, and, according to one story, 
he amused himself by playing on a flute while Rome was burn- 
ing. Finally his legions broke out in revolt, and fearing that 
he was going to fall into their hands, he caused himself to be 
killed by one of his slaves in 68 a.d. After a contest between 
rival chiefs during several months, the empire was finally 



1 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE 



175 



quieted by a member of the Flavian house by the name of 
Vespa'sian. 

The Flavian Emperors. — The first of the Flavian emperors 
was Vespasian, who reigned from 69 to 79 a.d. He was one 
of the good emperors. He re- 
stored order to the state, reformed 
the finances, and improved the 
city. His son Titus captured 
Jerusalem in the year 70 a.d., and 
it is said that over a million Jews 
lost their lives at this time. The 
temple of Jerusalem was de- 
stroyed, and the inhabitants of the 
city nvho survived the attack were 
sold as slaves. It was also in the reign of Vespasian that 
Britain was subdued by an able Roman general, Agric'ola, 




Akcii of Titus (Eome) 




who made the island a Eoman province, and was its governor 
78-85 A.D. 



176 



GENERAL HISTORY 



Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus, who reigned only- 
two years, from 79 to 81 a.d., but in this short time he won 
the regard of the people by his many kindly acts. Three great 
disasters befell Eome during this reign. The first was a ter- 
rible fire which was almost as disastrous as the great fire of 
Nero's reign. The second was the visitation of the plague, 
which destroyed the lives of many Romans ; and the third was 
the eruption of Vesuvius, which buried the cities of Hercu- 
la'neum and Pompe'ii (Pompa'yee). The ruins of these cities 




Excavating a House at Pompeii 



were not brought to light until the early part of the eighteenth 
century. Excavations made then and since have sliown the 
cities exactly as they were at the time of the disaster, thus 
enabling us to see what a Eoman city was 1900 years ago. 

Titus was succeeded by his younger brother, Domitian, who 
reigned from 81 to 96 a.d. He was of a cruel and jealous 
temper, and his reign is stained by many acts of tyranny and 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE 177 

by revolting crimes. The so-called " second persecution of the 
Christians" took place in his time, for this class of worshipers 
were especially hated by Domitian. At last he was murdered 
in his palace by one of his freedmen, 96 a.d. 

Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian (96-138 A.D. ). — After the mur- 
der of Domitian the Senate elected one of their own mem- 
bers to the throne. This was Nerva, whose short reign was 
marked by mildness and a wise administration of the govern- 
ment. 

More important in history was the reign of Trajan, who was 
a native of Spain and one of the best of the Roman emperors. 
Trajan pushed the boundaries of the empire farther to the 
east and to the north than they had ever been carried before, 
and his renown as a soldier was equaled by his taste in litera- 
ture ; for he was the patron of some of the greatest of the 
Roman writers, — Juvenal, Plutarch, and Pliny the Younger. 
He was also the great patron of architecture, adorning the city 
of Rome and the other cities of the empire with temples, 
theaters, and other structures. He died in 117 a.d., after 
a reign of nineteen years. 

The successor of Trajan was Hadrian, who reigned from 117 
to 138 A.D., and he, too, was a patron of arts and learning. 
He founded many fine buildings in different parts of the 
empire. He passed most of his time in traveling throughout 
the provinces of the empire, but spent the latter part of his 
reign at Rome, where he built one of the finest of the Roman 
temples, — the temple of Rome and Venus. 

The Two Antonines (138-180 A.D.). — From 138 to 161 a.d., 
the imperial throne was occupied by Antoni'nus, surnamed 
Pius, whose reign was peaceful and prosperous, but is not 
remarkable for any very striking events. 

His adopted son, Marcus Aurelius, who came to the throne 
in 161 A.D., is more famous in history. He was a philosopher 
and an author, but although he would have chosen a life of 
retirement given over to study, he showed himself energetic in 
dealing with the barbarians, guarded the eastern frontier, and 



178 



GENERAL HISTORY 



drove back the invading troops of the Germans across the 
Danube. 

The Rule of the Army. — For a period of nearly 100 years 
the emperors were set up and pulled down at the will of the 
soldiery, and in consequence their reigns were very short. It 
will not be necessary to go into the details of each reign, but 
the accompanying table ^ will show the names and dates of 
these emperors. During this time the Germans were pressing 
upon the frontier of the empire and in the short reign of 
Decius, 250 a.d., the Goths defeated the Roman army, and 
killed the emperor. Not long after this they seized the 
province of Dacia, and began sending plundering expeditions 
through the eastern domain of Rome. 

Diocletian (284-305 A.D.). — Under the energetic rule of 
Diocle'tian and his successors, the empire was strengthened 
and the government became an absolute monarchy. ^AU pre- 
tense of ruling under republican forms was thrown aside, and 
the personal authority of the emperor was supreme in name 
as well as in fact. Diocletian, thinking it too difficult for one 
man to govern his vast domains, chose a colleague, Maxim 'ian, 
who ruled in the West while he himself ruled in the East. 
Besides these two emperors, who each bore the title of 
Augustus, there were two subordinate officers called Caesars, 
to each of whom was assigned a portion of the empire. Thus 
a precedent was established for the division of the Roman 
state. Another feature of this reign was the fierce persecution 
of the Christians. Diocletian did his best to destroy the new 



ti^ 



1 Com'modus 180-192 

Per'tinax 193 

Did'ius Jiilia'uus . . . , 193 

Septim'ius Seve'rus . . . 19,3-211 

fCaracal'la 211-217 

(Geta 211-212 

Macri'nus 217-218 

Heliogab'alus 218-222 

Alexander Seve'rus . . . 222-2.35 

Maximi'nus 235-238 

Gordia'nus 238-244 



Philip'pus 244-249 

Dec'ius 249-251 

Period of the Thirty Tyrants 251-2«8 

Claudius 268-270 

Aurelian 270-275 

Tacitus 275-276 

Floria'nus 276 

Probus 276-282 

Cams 282-283 

jCari'nus 283-284 

1 Numeria'nus 283-284 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE 



179 



religion. Christian cliurclies were pulled down; the wor- 
shipers were hunted like wild beasts, and when taken were 
put to death with tortures. 

Constantine the Great (306-337 A.D.) and his Successors. — Con- 
stantine was the son of Constan'tius Chlorus who had ruled over 
Gaul, Spain, and Britain under Diocletian, and on the latter's 
death had been raised to the rank of Augustus. In the follow- 
ing year Constantius died in Britain, and Constantine was pro- 




claimed emperor by the troops. But there were several rival 
claimants, and it was only by hard fighting that he gained the im- 
perial power. There is a legend that just before meeting one of 
these rivals (Maxentius) on the field of battle, Constantine saw a 
sign of the cross in the sky with the words " By this conquer," 
and that, being victorious in the fight that followed, he gave np 
his pagan gods and became a Christian. It is certain that he 
showed a friendly spirit toward the new faith early in his reign, 
and in 313 a.d., by the Edict of Mil 'an, he granted it toleration. 



180 GENERAL HISTORY 



^ 



At first he ruled as joint emperor with Licinius, but by the 
year 324 a.d. he made himself sole ruler. He transferred the 
capital from Rome to Byzan'tium on the Bosporus, the latter 
city being thenceforth called, in his honor, Constantinople. 
This change was of great importance ; for it prepared the way 
for the separation of the empire into the Eastern and Western 
divisions, the former with its capital at Constantinople and 
the latter with its capital at Rome. In Constantine's time, 
however, the new city was the seat of government of the 
whole Roman world. 

The chief event of Constantine's reign was the making of 
Christianity the state religion. The Christian church had 
already become a very powerful body and the friendship of 
Constantine added greatly to its strength. Although a later 
emperor, Julian the Apostate, who came to the throne in 
361 AD., tried to restore the old pagan gods, he failed com- 
pletely, and before the close of the century Christianity was 
the dominant religion of the Roman state. In the reigns of 
Constantine's successors the main interest attaches to the 
relations of the empire with the Germanic tribes who were 
trying to force their way across its frontiers. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 
The Roman Empire. —The Government. —The Reign of Augustus, 27 
B.C. to 14 A.D. — The Augustan Lme of Emperors, 14-68 a.d. — The 
Flavian Emperors. —Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian, 96-138 a.d. — 
Two Antonines, 138-180 a.d. —The Rule of the Army, 180-284 a.d. 
— Diocletian, 284-305 a.d. — Constantine the Great (300-337 a.d.) 
and his Successors. 



CHAPTER XXV 

THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS 
ROMP] AND HER GeRMAN FoES 

The Roman Frontier. — The frontier of tlie Roman Empire 
on the continent of Europe was marked almost exactly by the 
courses of the Rhine and the Danube rivers. To the north of 
this irregular line lived a number of barbarous tribes all be- 
longing to that division of the Aryan race which is called 
Germanic or Teutonic, but having no common government, 
and, if we may judge from their constant wars among them- 
selves, quite unaware of their kinship. 

The Germans ; their Origin. — It has already been said that 
at a very remote period the forefathers of all the Aryan races 
lived together, and that the home of the original stock was 
probably in western Asia. Of those divisions which remained 
in Asia, that is, the Persians, Medes, and Hindus, some ac- 
count has been given. The other divisions, five in number, 
migrated to Europe more than 2000 years b.c. These were 
the Greeks, Italians, Celts, Slavs, and Germans, of whom the 
first two were fortunate in securing the spot.s most favored 
by nature and best adapted to the development of civilization. 
Consequently the Greeks and Romans were the first of the 
European Aryans to emerge from barbarism and build up 
great states. Their story also has been told. 

Of the three remaining races the Germans have the most 
interest for us, for it was they who founded the great Eu- 
ropean states of to-day. Beginning their migration at about 
the same time as the other Aryan tribes, they spread over 
the vast tract of country between the Black and Caspian 
Seas on the east and the North Sea on the west. To the 
north of them were the Slavs, who do not become of histori- 
cal importance till many centuries later, and to the south 
were the Celts, who at the t:me of which we are treating 
Colby's oiiN. hist. — 12 181 



182 



GENERAL HISTORY 



lived within the limits of the Roman Empire and may for 
our purposes be regarded as Romans. 

Early German Civilization. — These German ancestors of ours, 
for so we must consider them, since the chief element of the 
English-speaking race is German, continued in the barbarous 
stage while the Romans advanced to the founding of a great 
empire and were already on the road to decline ; and from the 
first century b.c. to the fourth century a.d. there was little 
change in their condition. To judge from the accounts of 
Roman writers during this period, they had hardly passed the 




Early Germans 

degree of civilization reached by our North American Indians 
of to-day. They lived in huts, kept herds of cattle, and tilled the 
ground, but at short intervals the whole tribe would move away 
either in search of new lands or in the hope of conquering and 
plundering their neighbors. They knew no higher organiza- 
tion than that of the tribe, and they valued no authority but 
that of the chief whom they themselves had chosen. Even 



THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS 183 

he held his office by their consent and had but little power 
in time of peace ; for their main object in electing him was 
that they might have a leader in war, and if he attempted to 
enforce the same obedience to his commands when war had 
ceased, he was promptly deposed or murdered. In other 
words, the real power was in the people themselves ; for they 
were, above all, liberty-loving and unruly. 

Physical and Moral Characteristics. — Physically the Germans 
were a fine race. Tall, well-formed, with muscles hardened 
by constant exercise, they seemed like giants to the smaller, 
weaker Romans, who, in spite of superior discipline, were 
often no match for them in battle. Roman writers give strik- 
ing accounts of their fierce blue eyes and blond hair, their 
enormous size, their feats of strength and daring, and the 
absolute fearlessness with which they would rush to certain 
death on the battlefield. 

Another matter of surprise to the Romans was the high 
standard of morality which they found among these savages. 
The German was content with one wife. The women were 
pure and treated with respect. Any violation of chastity met 
with the severest punishment, and as a rule the marriage vow 
was respected. Yet the Germans had the vices of barbarians. 
They drank to excess and were possessed by the passion of 
gambling, sometimes even staking their liberty on the chance 
of the game, the loser becoming the slave of the winner. 

Such is the account which the Roman writers have given 
us of the Germans. In some points it may be exaggerated; 
for, as the Romans were worsted in their encounters with their 
warlike neighbors, pride might naturally lead them to magnify 
the strength of these victorious enemies. Then, too, the hope 
of improving the corrupt morals of the Romans might induce 
the historian to paint in too glowing colors the virtues of 
barbarians, that his countrymen might be put to shame by the 
contrast. Yet it is safe to conclude that these primitive 
Germans were a brave and sturdy race, and in many respects 
were superior to ordinary barbarians. 



184 GENERAL HISTORY 

Roman Attempts at Conquest. — At first the Komans hoped 
to conquer the Germans and make them as good subjects of the 
empire as they had made tlie Gauls, but they found that they 
had undertaken a very difficult task. In the middle of the first 
century B.C. Caesar crossed the Khine into Germany to punish 
the insolence of the German chief Ariovis'tus, who had made 
war upon the Gallic allies of Rome ; but neither at this time 
nor on the occasion of a second invasion did the greatest of 
Rome's generals succeed in gaining permanent control over 
any portion of the German territory. In the reign of Augus- 
tus the Romans fared still worse. Varus, at the head of three 
Roman legions, crossed the Rhine and joined battle with the 
Germans in the Teu'toberg Forest (9 a.d,). He Avas killed, and 
his army was almost wholly destroyed. Thenceforth Rome 
was content in the main with a policy of self-defense, and bent 
all her energies to keeping the Rhine frontier unbroken. 

The Period of Successful Defense. — For about 150 years after 
the defeat of Varus, the Roman Empire managed to hold its 
own and the troublesome neighbors on the north were unable 
to break through the line of the frontier; but in 168 a.d. 
a confederation of German tribes, including the Marcoman'ni 
and others, being pushed on by the tribes behind them, 
crossed the border from what is now Bohemia and took pos- 
session of some Roman lands. After a long period of Avar- 
fare, the imperial government granted them certain lands 
along the Danube, and there the most of them remained, a 
constant source of trouble to the empire on account of their 
quarrels and lawlessness. Later a part of the Aleman'ni, an- 
other confederation of German tribes, seized some lands along 
the Danube and upper Rhine. After a time these tribes felt 
the effect of the Roman civilization. 

For nearly a century, that is, till the reign of the emperor 
Decius (249-251 a.d.), the empire was not seriously threat- 
ened, but Decius came into conflict with a new foe. The 
Goths, one of the largest divisions of German tribes, invaded 
the province called Moe'sia, and started on their usual course of 



THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS 185 

plundering and killing. Decius met them in battle, but was 
defeated and slain, and a few years later the emperor Aure- 
lian gave them the Roman province of Dacia as the price of 
peace. 

Another century of comparative security followed. At its 
close, the Goths again were the disturbers. The eastern divi- 
sion, who were called Ostrogoths, had as neighbors in the 
region about the Black and Caspian Seas a peculiar and war- 
like race, called Huns, who were constantly pressing westward 
and making war on all who stood in their way. These Huns 
attacked the Ostrogoths, defeated them, and forced them into 
their service as allies. Then the combined force of Huns and 
Ostrogoths fell upon the western division of the Goths, known 
as Visigoths, and crowded them southward to the Danube. In 
these straits the Visigoths begged the emperor to let them 
occupy the lands just to the south of the Danube, agreeing to 
defend them against attack. This was granted, and in 376 they 
crossed the river and settled in Moesia. ^ 

The Battle of Adrianople (378 A.D.). — These newcomers, 
the Vis'igoths, were hard people to deal with at best, but the 
Komans seem to have given them a just cause of offense. The 
officials of the empire misgoverned them and robbed them 
until finally the barbarians broke out in revolt. The Roman 
emperor Valens thereupon set out with an army to punish 
them, and the forces met in battle at Adriano'ple, 378 a.d. 
The Roman army was beaten, and Valens himself was killed in 
the retreat. This battle was very important ; for it taught the 
Germans that they were more than a match for the Roman 
legions, and it opened the way for the invaders. Great throngs 
of barbarians crossed the frontier, the Visigoths pressed on and 
took what lands they chose, and it looked for the moment as if 
the empire was at an end ; but the skill and bravery of one 
able ruler checked for a time the progress of the enemy and 
prolonged the life of the Roman state. This ruler was the 
emperor Theodo'sius. 

But before going on to the events of his reign, it will be well 



186 GENERAL HISTORY 

to learn something about the names and position of the 
various German tribes with whom he and his successors had 
to deal. 

The German Tribes in the Fourth Century A.D. — Starting from 
the east, in the region to the north of Greece and between the 
Adriatic and Black seas, we first find these Goths of whom we 
have spoken. They were of pure German blood, and it is in 
their dialect that the Moeso-Gothic version of the Bible was 
written, the oldest book in a Germanic language that has come 
down to us. Both divisions of them — the Western or Visi- 
goths, and the Eastern or Ostrogoths — were occupying portions 
of the Roman territory in the latter part of the fourth cen- 
tury, but the Visigoths had penetrated further into the empire 
than their kinsmen. 

North and east of the Goths lived two races, the Slavs and 
the Huns, who were not of German blood. The Slavs, who 
occupied the southern part of what is now Bussia, did, indeed, 
belong to the same grand division as the Germans; that is, 
they were Aryans; but the Huns, who lived near the Black 
Sea, were of an entirely different race, the Turanian, and 
closely allied to the Turks or Tartars. To the west the 
nearest German neighbors to the Goths at this period were the 
descendants of those German tribes, the Marcomanni and 
others, who had settled in the lands near the Danube in the 
second century. 

Still further west along the upper Rhine lived the Ale- 
manni, who at one time had threatened Italy itself, and 
beyond them to the west dwelt the Franks, who were des- 
tined to become the most powerful of all the Teutonic 
tribes. The Franks held the lands along the lower Ehine 
near its mouth, and a x^art of what is now northern 
France. To the north and east of them, between the mouth 
of the Rhine and the mouth of the Elbe, were the Saxons, 
our nearest relatives among all these peoples; for at a later 
time, with two neighboring tribes, the Angles and Jutes, they 
conquered and settled in Britain. Finally, two more tribes. 



THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS 187 

the Burgundians and Vandals, are found along the southern 
shore of the Baltic Sea. 

Such was the situation of the German tribes in the fourth 
century. Already one of these tribes, the Goths, had begun 
that great movement which was to destroy the Roman Empire 
and cliange entirely the face of western Europe. 

Theodosius saves the Empire. — After the defeat of Valens at 
Adrianople in 378, it seemed as if nothing could stop the rush 
of the barbarians into the very center of the empire. Not 
only had the imperial crown descended to feeble rulers un- 
worthy to wear it, but the empire had fallen apart and the 
power was divided between an emperor at Constantinople and 
another at Rome. The Eastern emperor, however, had the 
wisdom to call in the aid of the only man who could save the 
state from destruction. He sent for Theodosius from Spain, 
and gave him command of the army. Theodosius did not try 
to drive out the Goths, but he set them to quarreling among 
themselves and weakened their power. He gave them lands, 
but he made them keep within limits that he defined. To the 
Visigoths he gave Thrace and to the Ostrogoths Pannonia. 
In his reign something like the old power of the empire was 
restored and his rule extended over both East and West ; but 
on his death in 395 the empire Avas divided between his two 
sons, Honorius ruling in the West and Arcadius in the East, 
They were as weak and foolish as any of their predecessors, 
and their folly helped on the fall of Rome almost as much as 
the attacks of the barbarians. 

The Visigoths. — Already it had become the practice to re- 
cruit the Roman army from German subjects, so that the 
empire was relying for defense on the kinsmen of the very 
men who were attacking it. Almost immediately after the 
death of Theodosius, the Visigoths began to give trouble. 
They chose for their chief Al'aric, an able and valiant leader, 
who determined to gain for his people new and better lands, 
and with this end in view marched them directly into the 
heart of Greece. The Romans still had one able general. 



188 GENERAL HISTORY 

Sti'licho, a Vandal in the service of the Western Empire, led an 
army into Greece and forced Alaric to withdraw into Illyria; 
but this province was so near Italy that the temptation to the 
Goths to pass around the head of the Adriatic and march on 
Rome proved too strong. They did so ; but there they again 
found Stilicho in front of them. This time the two armies 
met in a fierce battle at PoUentia (403), and the Goths were 
defeated and driven out. If Stilicho had been permitted to 
follow up his advantage, there might still have been some hope 
for the empire; but at this juncture the emperor Honorius, 
having taken it into his head that Stilicho was plotting to 
overthrow him, caused him to be murdered, thus depriving 
Italy of the only man able to hold an army together in the 
face of her foes. 

The Breaking up of the Empire. — In the meanwhile, since it 
required all the available troops to meet these Visigoths, the 
western provinces of the empire were left without defenders 
and a large body of Franks broke into northern Gaul. The 
Vandals and Burgundians also, leaving their homes on the 
Baltic, began their southward journey ; and the Suevi, another 
German tribe, entered the Roman dominions. Thus early in 
the fifth century we find six barbarous German tribes within 
the limits of the empire : Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Vandals, Bur- 
gundians, Franks, and Suevi. 

The Sack of Rome by the Visigoths (410). — Promptly on the 
death of Stilicho, Alaric and his followers returned to Italy. 
Finding no one to bar their way, they were soon at the very 
gates of Rome, bargaining with the inhabitants in regard to 
the terms on which the city should be spared. Receiving a 
promise that he should have a certain amount of treasure, 
Alaric consented to leave the city unharmed, and passed on; 
but the emperor, who at this time was shut up safely in Ra- 
venna many miles away, refused to accept the terms. Alaric 
then came back and having again failed to bring the emperor 
to reason, besieged Rome and was soon inside its walls. For- 
tunately for the Romans, the barbarians were Christians, though 



THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS 189 

not of the orthodox faith, and what they wanted was plunder 
which they could take away with them. The churches and 
the buildings generally were spared, nor is it likely that a 
large number of the people were killed, but the fact still re- 
mained that for the first time in 800 years Rome had fallen 
into the hands of an enemy. It had been believed that the 
city could never be conquered, and the easy victory of Alaric 
was a source of mingled surprise and terror to the superstitious, 
who thought that the end of all things was at hand. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Teutonic Migrations. — The Roman Frontier. — The Germans; 
their Origin : A Branch of the Aryan Race. Their Habitat. — Early 
German Civilization : Their Rude Life. Tribal Organization. Pop- 
ular Power. — Physical and Moral Characteristics : Vices and Vir- 
tues of the Germans. — Roman Attempts at Conquest : Caesar and 
Ariovistus. Defeat of Varus. — The Period of ^Successful Defense, 
to 168 A.i). : Invasion of the Marcomanni and Other Tribes. Reign 
of Decius, 249-251 a.d. Inroads of the Goths and the Huns. —The 
Battle of Adrianople, 378 a.d. : Defeat of the Romans by the Goths 
at Adrianople. The Goths checked by Theodosius. — The German 
Tribes in the Fourth Century : The Visigoths, the Ostrogoths, the 
Marcomanni and the Alemanni, the Franks, the Saxons, the Bur- 
gundians, and the Vandals. —Theodosius saves the Empire: Policy 
of Theodosius. Old Power of the Empire restored to Some Extent. 
The Empire divided between his Two Sons. —The Visigoths : Alaric 
invades the Empire. Successful Resistance of Stilicho. The Battle 
of Pollentia, 403 a.d. —The Breaking up of the Empire : The Franks 
enter Gaul. The Vandals and Burgundians begin to move South- 
ward. In the Fifth Century there are Six Barbarous Tribes within 
the Empire : Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Vandals, Burgundians, Franks, 
and Suevi. — The Sack of Rome by the Visigoths, 410 : Alaric cap- 
tures Rome. The Effect on the Popular Mind. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

THE FALL OF ROME 

The Founding of the Visigothic Kingdom in Spain (415). — 
Alaric lived but a short time after the sack of Eome. While 
planning new and extensive conquests, he died in southern Italy 
and, according to the story, was buried in the bed of the river 
Busentius, which was turned from its course. That the place 
might never be known, the slaves who had buried him were 
killed. His followers became nominally the servants of the 
emperor Honorius, but in reality did about as they pleased. 
They went first into Gaul to drive out some rivals of the em- 
peror, and then into Spain, where some rivals of their own, the 
Vandals and the Suevi, had already settled. They soon cleared 
a place for themselves in that country, and about the year 415 
founded the Visigothic kingdom of Spain, which at first ex- 
tended as far north as the river Loire in France. This was 
the first kingdom founded by the Teutonic invaders in southern 
Europe, and it may be regarded as the beginning of the modern 
kingdom of Spain. 

The Vandals. — Now that we have traced the movement of 
the Visigoths till their final settlement in Spain, it remains 
to describe the way in Avhich the other tribes each founded 
a barbarian kingdom on the territory of the weakened and 
dismembered Eoman Empire. 

The next to appear after the Visigothic kingdom was that 
founded by the Vandals. This people moved down from the 
shores of the Baltic and were occupying Spain at the time 
the Visigoths entered it, but were crowded by the latter into 
that portion of the Spanish peninsula which still preserves 
the recollection of them in the name Andalusia (formerly Van- 

190 



THE FALL OF ROME 



191 



dalos). Discontented with these narrow quarters and unable 
to make headway to the north, they naturally turned to Africa 
as a promising field for plunder and perhaps for settlement. 
Accordingly, they crossed the Straits of Gibraltar about the 
year 429, and in ten years possessed themselves of all the 
northern coast as far east as Carthage. We may thus place 
the founding of the Vandal kingdom at the year 439, and it 
lasted for a little less than 100 years, till 534, when Beli- 
sa'rius, the general of the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian, 
conquered it and reannexed it to the empire in the East. 



EUROPE 

in 526 

Italics indicate the original 
home: e.g -Vandals 

SCALE OF MILES 




The Vandals were a Germanic people and, like the Goths, 
had been converted to the Christian faith. But in one re- 
spect they differed greatly from all other German tribes; 
they were destroyers merely. They built up nothing in the 
place of what they pulled down, and their name is so closely as- 



192 GENERAL HISTORY 

sociated with the idea of plundering that the term 'vandalism' 
has passed into common use to indicate useless, senseless de- 
struction. They were the early pirates of the Mediterranean, 
steering their vessels to any coast that promised to yield a 
booty. They planted colonies in Sicily, Corsica, and the Bal- 
earic Isles, but neither there nor in Africa did they leave any 
permanent traces of their rule ; for when their kingdom fell 
they disappeared completely from the pages of history, and all 
that we have to remind us that they ever lived in Africa is the 
presence of an occasional light-complexioned type among the 
dark-skinned natives of the North African coast. 

The Burgundians. — Between 413 and 443 the Burgundians, 
who had been the neighbors of the Vandals on the Baltic 
coast, moved down as far as the city of Worms, and a few 
years later we hear of them in the valley of the Rhone. They 
established a kingdom in southeastern France and western 
Switzerland. The term ' Burgundy,' applied to a portion of 
the region they occupied, preserves their name in history ; but 
they ceased to exist as an independent nation at the same 
time that the Vandal kingdom was overthrown, in the year 
534. Their very powerful and warlike neighbors, the Franks, 
subdued them in that year, and thenceforth they formed a part 
of the Frankish kingdom. 

Invasion of Britain by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. — In the 
year 449, almost at the same time that the Burgundians founded 
their kingdom, other German tribes made their appearance 
in Britain. The island of Great Britain was at that time 
a Roman province inhabited by a Celtic race called Britons. 
That portion of the race which lived in England had become 
thoroughly Romanized and had reached a high degree of civil- 
ization ; but the northern part of the island was occupied by 
savage tribes called Picts and Scots, who made frequent in- 
roads into the lands of their civilized neighbors. So long as 
the latter had Roman legions to protect them, they were secure ; 
but when the empire began to fall to pieces, these legions were 
needed nearer Rome. Accordingly the Roman soldiers were 



THE FALL OF ROME 193 

Avitlidrawn, and the Britons, left to fight their own battles, 
could not defend themselves against the Picts and Scots. 
Going from bad to worse, they finally called in the aid of the 
German tribes that lived in the region north of the mouth of 
the Rhine. 

Two Jutish chieftains, Hengist and Horsa, were the first 
to come over. But the Britons found that in saving them- 
selves from one foe they had simply fallen into the hands of 
another ; for their allies, after driving out the Picts and Scots, 
determined to keep the country for themselves. The first 
band invited others to join them, and the eastern and south- 
ern coasts of England were peopled by hungry hordes of 
Jutes, Angles, and Saxons who every year drove the natives 
further to the north and west, until by the end of a century 
and a half from the time of their landing they were in posses- 
sion of the best part of the island. So it happened that the 
language and customs of Englishmen and Americans to-day 
are German and not Celtic-Koman in their origin ; for the war 
between the two races was one of extermination, and the victory 
of the German was so complete that the native race left but 
few traces of itself in England. The very name of the country 
was changed from Britannia (Britain) to Engla-land (England), 
the land of the Angles. 

The Huns. — Thus by the middle of the fifth century four 
Teutonic kingdoms were founded on territory that once be- 
longed to Rome : the Yisigothic kingdom in Spain, the Bur- 
gundian in eastern France and western Switzerland, the 
Vandal in Africa, and the Anglo-Saxon in Great Britain. 
There still remain two tribes, the Franks and the Ostrogoths, 
who before the close of the same century were to found king- 
doms on Roman soil ; but before passing on to them, it is neces- 
sary to speak of some events which mark the closing days of the 
Roman Empire in the West. 

As if Rome had not enough to do in holding out against 
her numerous German foes, she was called upon to face a new 
enemy far more savage and merciless than any of the Teutonic 



194 GENERAL HISTORY 

tribes. This was the people known as Huns, whom we have 
noticed before as causing that westward movement of the 
Goths which resulted in breaking down the barriers of Eome's 
provinces in southeastern Europe. They were a terrible race, 
these Huns, hideous in appearance, with flattened noses, short, 
thick, misshapen bodies, and yellow skins, and the fear which 
their repulsive looks aroused in their enemies was justified by 
the fierceness and bravery they showed in battle and by the 
cruelty with which they treated all who fell into their power. 

Attila. — About the year 433, this people, who were then 
living in what is now Austria-Hungary, chose for their chief 
the famous At'tila, a bloodthirsty savage of remarkable mili- 
tary skill and vast ambition. Almost at the same time that 
the Anglo-Saxon tribes were setting out for Britain, Attila, 
gathering a large army made up of Huns and German troops 
whom he had forced into his service, started westward with 
the object of driving the Komans out of Gaul. City after city 
fell into his hands, and the country through which he passed 
was so completely desolated as to give rise to the saying that 
the grass never grew where the horses of Attila had trod. 

But the Romans had an able defender in their general Ae'tius, 
who succeeded in drawing to his side a large body of Franks 
from the north and Visigoths from the south of Gaul, and when 
Attila laid siege to Orleans, the allied Eomans and Germans 
drove him from its walls. Attila then retreated to Chalons', 
where he turned and joined battle with his pursuers (451). 
According to the old historians, the numbers in each of the two 
opposing armies were enormous, and the battle was the most 
terrible that had ever occurred. Over 160,000 are said to have 
been slain. Night came before either side could claim the 
victory ; but on the following day, while the Romans were 
ready to fight, Attila dared not renew the battle and retreated. 

The battle of Chalons is regarded as one of the most im- 
portant in history ; for it was a struggle for mastery between 
two widely different branches of the human race, the Aryan and 
the Turanian, and the prize to the victor was the whole of 



I 



THE FALL OF ROME 195 

western Europe. It decided that Europe should remain in the 
hands of the Aryans, and should advance to a higher degree of 
civilization than it would have ever attained if it had fallen to 
the lot of a race akin to the Chinese and the Turks. 

Attila in Italy. — Yet it is probable that the Huns could not 
have long retained their power even if they had won this battle ; 
for, like the Vandals, they were mere destroyers, and showed 
no ability to build up anything that could last. After the de- 
feat at Chalons their story is soon told. Attila led them into 
Italy, where the road lay open to Home, and it seemed for a 
moment as if the city must fall into his hands ; but the prayers 
of Leo, Bishop of Rome, induced Attila to abandon his plan.' 
It was a strange thing that Leo's appeals should have moved 
this cruel barbarian to give up so splendid and so easy a prize, 
and some of the early writers account for it by a miracle, saying 
that while Leo was talking to him the heavens opened and 8i . 
Peter and St. Paul appeared before the frightened Hun. What- 
ever was his motive, he left Italy aluiost immediately. Soon 
after this he died and his people, when deprived of the lead- 
ership of this 'Scourge of God,' as he was called, scattered 
and from this time forth were of no importance in the history 
of Europe. 

Sack of Rome by the Vandals (455 A.D.). — It is to be noted 
that what life there was in the declining empire was wholly 
due to the Christian Church. The story of Leo and Attila 
is a good illustration of the awe which the Church inspired in 
the barbarians. And we must remember that Attila was not 
only a barbarian, but a pagan, while most of the German tribes 
who had entered the empire were already Christianized, though 
they did not hold the orthodox belief. Yet four years after 
Attila's invasion, when Rome was again besieged, this time by 
a Christian foe, and when this same Leo again begged the con- 
queror to spare the city, his prayer was refused. In 455 
Gai'seric or Gen'seric, king of the Vandals, sailed with a troop 
of plunderers across the Mediterranean from Africa, and, having 
neither pity, fear, nor reverence, made Rome again the scene of 



196 GENERAL HISTORY 



Dm I 



pillage and murder. These pirates went back to Africa with 
rich supply of booty and with many Roman captives whom 
they sold as slaves. 

Fall of the Roman Empire in the West. — For twenty years 
longer the western division of the empire continued to exist 
in name, but in reality the whole power was in the hands of 
the barbarians. The German mercenaries who composed the 
Eoman army decided who should be emperor, and if he gov- 
erned in a way that Avas not to their liking, they pulled 
him down and set up another. Naturally the reigns of 
these emperors were very short. At last, in 475, the bar- 
barians chose a mere boy who, under the high-sounding 
name of Rom'ulus Angus 'tulus, enjoyed the title but not one 
vestige of the real power of a Roman emperQr. The real ruler 
in Italy was a barbarian named Odoa'cer, kii^ of the Herulian 
Goths. For a time Odoacer put up with this state of things, 
but finally he grew tired of the pretense and demanded that 
the young Augustulus should be deposed and the title of 
Roman Emperor of the West abolished. Further than this, 
he himself asked to be recognized as ruler in the West under 
the title of Patrician. The Eastern emperor at Constantinople 
granted these requests, for he could not help himself. Odoa- 
cer became Patrician, nominally ruling in Italy as the agent of 
the emperor at Constantinople, but really doing about as he 
chose, with little regard for authority anywhere. Augustulus 
was deposed and is heard of no more in history. 

So came to an end the Roman Empire in the West in the 
year 47G a.d. It made very little difference to the people at 
the time, for they were governed in much the same way as 
they had been before ; but the date is one of great importance, 
for it makes a break in the old traditional order of things and 
Rome is no longer even in name the capital of the Western 
world. It is the date at which we may place the beginning of 
the Middle Ages. The Eastern Empire lasted nearly 1000 
years longer, that is, to the capture of Constantinople in 
1453. 



ROMAN LIFE AND MANNERS 



197 



The Fall of Romk. — Founding of the Visigotliic Kingdom, 415. — 
Founding of the Vandal Kingdom, 439. — The Burgundians. — Inva- 
sion of Britain by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. — Invasion of 
the Huns. — Attila : The Battle of Chalons, 451. Invasion of Italy. 
Withdrawal of the Huns. — Fall of Roman Empire in the West, 
476 A.I). : Genseric's Capture of Rome, 455. Romulus Augustulus. 
Odoacer. Deposition of Romulus Augustulus, 476. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

ROMAN LIFE AND MANNERS 

Roman Buildings. — In early times the private houses of the 
Romans were very simple, showing little attempt at adornment 




A KoMAN House 



or luxury, but in the later days of the republic and under the 
empire, the dwellings of the wealthy were costly and beautiful. 
colby's gen, hist. — 13 



198 



GENERAL HISTORY 



The excavations at Pompeii have brought to light many good 
specimens of Roman domestic architecture as it existed toward 
the close of the first century a.d. In the center of the ground 
floor was the atrium, the main hall or reception room, from 
which doors opened into the principal apartments. The Lares, 
or household gods, and the family fireplace were placed in the 
atrium. The floor was often a mosaic of many-colored stone, and 
the bare walls brightly painted or covered with frescoes. Fine 
and costly furniture, including articles of gold, silver, ivory, and 
bronze, filled the rooms, and the carving showed beauty in 
design and skill in execution. The Roman town was usually 
built around a height on which stood the citadel or place of 
refuge, as well as the various temples of the gods. Near by 
was the forum, or market place, an open space surrounded 
by i^ublic buildings, the center of the business and political 
life of the town. 

Military System. — The Roman army was divided into legions, 
each of which contained about 6000 men, although at first the 
number was much smaller. Each legion was in turn subdivided 
into ten cohorts. Besides the legionary soldiers, the army 
comprised bodies of auxiliary troops from the provinces or 

the allies of Rome. The 
common weapons were the 
pilam, or javelin, and a short 
sword, but slings and bows 
were also used. Cavalry 
and artillery were employed, 
but made up a comparatively 
small portion of the fighting 
force. The military engines 
corresponding to the modern 
artillery included the cata- 
pult for throwing darts, the 
ballista for discharging heavier missiles, and the battering 
ram for breaking in the walls of a besieged town. Another 
important contrivance was the besieging tower, a wooden 




Catapult 



ROMAN LIFE AND MANNERS 



199 



structure with several floors or stories from which the soldiers 
hurled darts at the besieged, or passed to the top of the walls 
by means of a drawbridge. 

One of the most striking military customs of the Eomans 
was the triumph or reward of honor to a victorious general. It 
was the highest honor which could be given to a soldier, and 
was decreed by vote of the Senate. It consisted of a splendid 
procession through the Triumphal Gate and along the Via 
Sacra (sacred street) to the Capitol. It was headed by the 
Senate and the magistrates, after whom came a long line of 
wagons containing the spoils of conquest, followed by the prin- 
cipal captives. The victorious general, wearing a laurel wreath, 
was carried in a four-horse chariot at the head of the army. 

Religious Worship. — 
From the Greeks the 
Romans borrowed 
many of their religious 
notions, and there is 
a marked likeness be- 
tween the Greek and 
Roman forms of wor- 
ship. The chief Ro- 
man gods were Jupiter, 
— the father of heaven, 
and his wife Juno; 
Minerva, the goddess 
of wisdom ; Diana, the 
goddess of the chase; 
Mars, the god of war; 
Vesta, the goddess of 
the hearth and of the 
national safety ; Ceres, 
the goddess of agricul- 
ture ; Mercury, the god 
of trade; Neptune, the god of the sea; and Venus, the goddess 
of beauty and love. Besides these was a host of minor deities, 




Diana 



200 GENERAL HISTORY 



for the Romans saw a divine agent in every natural force 
Spirits presided over marriage and birth; every person was 
under the special care of a genius; and there were gods of the 
forest, of the boundary, of planting, and of sowing. 

Religious Officers. — The chief religious officers in the state 
were the pontiffs, the chief of whom was the Pontifex Maxi- 
mas. They regulated religious worship and saw that all observ- 
ances were properly maintained. Another important class 
of priests was the Augurs, whose duty it was to ascertain the 
will of the gods by means of certain signs, such as the flight 
of birds, the appearance of the sky, the approach of a storm, 
etc. This was known as taking the auspices, and was a matter 
of great importance, for the Romans would undertake no im- 
portant business unless the omens were favorable. Another 
way of learning the divine will was employed by the sooth- 
sayers (Harusjnces), who pretended to do so by studying the 
entrails of animals killed in sacrifice. Besides these were the 
Flamens, who were the priests of particular gods; the Fetiales, 
who were concerned with the relations of Rome with foreign 
states, and performed the proper religious rites on the declara- 
tion of war and the conclusion of peace ; and the Vestals, the 
six virgins who attended to the worship of Vesta and kept the 
sacred fire burning on her hearth. 

The Roman worship lacked the vivacity and joyousness of 
the Greek. It was sober and self-restrained. Deep rever- 
ence was paid to the gods, who were stern taskmasters that 
must be appeased, rather than those half-human deities whom 
the Greeks treated with serene familiarity. But as the old 
simplicity of the Roman character disappeared, religion lost 
its hold on the popular mind. Worship was empty and formal, 
and it is said that two augurs could not meet on the street 
without laughing. 

Dress. — The distinctive article of Roman dress was the toga, 
a - woolen garment, semicircular in form, draped over the 
shoulders in such a way as to leave one arm free. It was 
the Roman full dress, and every citizen was expected to wear 



s I 



ROMAN LIFE AND MANNERS 



201 



it on public occasions. At the age of seventeen a young man 
assumed the pure white toga in place of the toga with the 
purple hem, as a token of full citizenship. Women wore a 
loose over-dress and an inner tunic. On the street a long 
cloak or shawl of bright colors was worn. 

Meals. — In the luxurious days of the later republic and the 
empire, great attention was paid to the pleasures of the table. 
The costliness and variety of the food can hardly be conceived. 
The chief meal was dinner (cena), of which the "Romans partook 




ii^ iiuMAM JjAKl 



toward evening. At table they reclined on couches, and ate 
with two pointed spoons instead of knives and forks. At the 
banquets of the rich, musicians and dancing girls were often 
brought in to entertain the guests while feasting. Each guest 
brought with him a linen napkin, which he wore over his breast. 
Wine was used freely at the feasts, and before the drinking 
began the guests crowned themselves with chaplets of flowers 
or vines. 



202 GENERAL HISTORY 

Baths. — The Eoman baths were very numerous, and some 
of them were on a magnificent scale and fitted with every 
luxury. Everyone resorted to them for amusement and for 
the interchange of gossip. They were provided with libraries 
and with facilities for playing games. 

Education. — The Roman schoolmaster treated his pupils 
with great severity, using the rod freely. The sons of wealthy 
parents were accompanied to school by a slave. The elemen- 
tary branches were reading, writing, arithmetic, and music, 
but in the higher schools the best works of Greek and Latin 
authors were studied. Much attention was paid to the study of 
rhetoric and public speaking. It was common for the Roman 
youth to finish his education by a course of study at Athens. 

Burial. — Like the Greeks, the Romans believed -that the 
souls of the unburied dead were obliged to wander for a hun- 
dred years before they were allowed to enter the place of 
departed spirits. Accordingly, they took great pains in all 
matters that pertained to burial. The ceremonies preceding 
and accompanying the interment of the well-to-do Roman 
were elaborate and expensive. Incense was placed beside the 
funeral couch, which was decorated with flowers and boughs. 
The body was kept on exhibition for seven days, after which 
it was carried to the Porum in a solemn funeral procession, 
consisting of the nearest relatives, who carried the bier, and 
bands of hired mourners and actors, the latter by recitation or 
mimicry recalling the events in the life of the deceased, or his 
personal peculiarities. Another curious feature of the funeral 
procession was the band of hired attendants who wore waxen 
masks representing the features of the distinguished ancestors 
of the deceased. In the Eorum a eulogy was pronounced over 
the body, which was then taken to the place of burial or to the 
funeral pyre, for both interment and cremation were cus- 
tomary. If the body was burned, the ashes were collected and 
placed in a funeral urn. If it was buried, it was usual to 
employ a stone coffin in which the ornaments were placed 
along with the body. 



MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

CHAPTER XXVIII 

THE NEW BARBARIAN KINGDOMS 

Value of the Study of the Middle Ages. — The term ^Middle 
Ages ' is applied to the period between the fall of the Roman 
Empire in the West (476 a.d.) and the capture of Constanti- 
nople by the Turks (1453 a.d.). It thus embraces nearly a 
thousand years of the middle ground between ancient and 
modern history. It used to be thought that this period was 
one with which the modern scholar need have very little to do, 
because civilization was at low ebb and the events of a half- 
savage and ignorant age seemed to have no lessons for those 
who were fortunate enough to live in the later days of culture" 
and enlightenment. But a deeper study has proved this period 
to be of the greatest interest to the historical student. It was 
the time in Avhich the great states of modern Europe had their 
beginnings, and we never can understand what these nations 
are unless we study them in their origin and development. 

Character of the Middle Ages. — Because the men of this 
period were ignorant, because the invasion of hordes of bar- 
barians had changed the Avhole face of the Roman Empire, 
overturned its elaborate system of government, destroyed its 
commerce, and caused its art and literature to be neglected and 
forgotten, we must not think that all progress received a 
sudden check or that the world stood still for the next thou- 

203 



204 GENERAL HISTORY 

sand years. The outward splendor of the old civilization, to be 
sure, was gone, but in place of it there were elements which 
when combined and developed were to bring in a new civiliza- 
tion higher and more lasting than that which had passed away. 

The invading tribes learned much from the conquered peo- 
ple. Many of them gave up their barbarous dialects for the 
language of the Komans. They gave up their wandering 
habits and learned to live in cities. They copied the Roman 
system of law, and they cherished the hope of building a 
great world empire like that Avhich Rome had been. 

On the other hand, the barbarians had ideas of personal 
liberty, of the responsibility of the rulers to the people whom 
they ruled, which had long ceased to exist in the minds of 
the slavish Romans under the despotic government of the 
empire. 

Again, the fall of political Rome did not bring with it the 
fall of the Roman Church. The Church, in fact, rather profited 
by the change, being no longer overshadowed by the State, but 
standing forth as the only compact and orderly institution in 
a world of confusion. As Rome had conquered by force, the 
Church conquered by the gospel of peace, and soon brought 
all western Europe into the fold by her steady and vigorous 
policy of conversion. . 

These, then, were the influences that tended to shape society 
in the Middle Ages : Roman ideas preserved in literature and 
systems of law; Germanic customs and characteristics; and 
the power of the Christian Church. 

Many prefer the date 378 a.d. as marking the transition from 
Ancient to Modern history, since at that time the migrations 
began on a large scale, and within the century that followed 
several of the mediaeval monarchies had their beginning. The 
date 476 a.d. is on some accounts the more convenient, but it 
must be remembered that within the limits of Roman Empire 
four Teutonic kingdoms had already been established; namely, 
the Visigothic, the Vandal, the Anglo-Saxon, and the Burgundian. 

The Founding of the Frankish Kingdom. — In 406 a.d., a large 



THE NEW BARBARIAN KINGDOMS 205 

body of the Franks had crossed the Rhine. From that time 
they spread slowly over northern Gaul, although they con- 
tinued to hold their original land. In this respect their 
movement differed from that of other German tribes, for it 
• was less a migration than a gradual extension of dominion. 
Perhaps it Avas because they did not waste their time and 
strength in useless wandering, but held fast to the good lands 
they had, that they became the strongest and most progressive 
race in Europe. 

We have nothing but doubtful legends about their early his- 
tory and we know only that they were ruled by kings called 
Merovin'gians, from Mero'veus, the mythical ancestor of the 
line. We do not get into the region of fact till the year 481, 
when Clovis, the greatest of all the Merovingians and the 
founder of a powerful monarchy, succeeded to the throne. 

Clovis (481-51 1). — Clovis was young, daring, and ambitious, 
and to the south of his territory was the fairest and richest 
portion of the empire. He resolved to put it to the test 
whether Franks or Romans should possess the country, and 
with this end in view he marched down into the lands he cov- 
eted. In the battle of Soissons in 486 he destroyed the last 
remnant of Roman power in Gaul, and gained for his people 
all the lands of modern France as far south as the river Loire. 
In governing the country which he had conquered, he showed 
much shrewdness and skill ; for instead of letting his i)eople 
oppress the natives and make enemies of them, as was the 
usual way with the barbarians, he contrived it so that the lead- 
ing men among the Roman-Celtic population were friendly to 
his rule. 

The chief means by which he brought this about was his 
protection of the Church. He and his warriors had no religion 
in the proper sense of the Avord. Their belief was a mass of 
superstitions without system or consistency, a mere matter of 
signs and omens and unreasoning fear ; and the mysterious 
power and impressive ceremonies of the Christian Church 
naturally took strong hold of their imaginations. Now Clovis 



206 GENERAL HISTORY 

knew that if the Franks accepted the orthodox faith and 
made the Church their friend, they would be far better off 
than any of the other tribes ; for the Germans generally had 
been converted, not to the Christianity taught by the Church, 
but to what was called Arianism, a form of Christianity 
which the Church considered an odious heresy no better than 
paganism itself. As a result, the orthodox Christians and the 
Arian invaders Avere forever quarreling in the countries 
where they lived together. 

Clovis then, thinking that he would have an easier time in 
governing if he were backed up by the Church, was disposed 
to accept what was regarded as the orthodox faith. A few 
years after the battle of Soissons, he married a Burgundian 
princess named Clotilda, a very loyal supporter of Catholic 
Christianity, who did her best to bring Clovis around to her 
way of thinking ; yet it seemed to be a hard matter for him 
to give up his old gods, especially when a son who was born to 
them, and whom Clovis permitted to be baptized, died in infancy. 

His conversion finally came about in a rather curious way. 
He was leading his Franks in a fierce battle with the Ale- 
manni, and the fight was going against him. In his despair 
he thought his own gods had deserted him, and vowed that 
if the God of the Christians would grant victory to the Franks, 
he would forsake his old religion for the Christian faith. Kal- 
lying his troops, he made another attack, and this time drove 
the Alemanni from the field. 

True to his promise, on Christmas Day, 496, he was bap- 
tized in the presence of a large multitude, and soon after- 
ward thousands of the Franks followed his example. The 
anniversary of this great event is still kept by Frenchmen, 
who regard Clovis as the founder of their nation. Its impor- 
tance consists in the fact that the conversion of the Franks to 
the Catholic form of Christianity made the strongest of the 
German tribes an ally of the Church. Both the Church and 
the Frankish state profited by the alliance. The Roman bishop 
became the acknowledged head of western Christendom, while 



THE NEW BARBARIAN KINGDOMS 207 

the Frankish rulers gradually built up the most powerful em- 
pire in Europe. 

There are two more events to be noticed in the life of Clovis. 
As a champion of the true faith, he attacked the Arian king 
of the Burgundians, and made his kingdom tributary to his 
own (500), although the conquest was not completed till a few 
years later (534). In 507-508 Clovis attacked the Visigoths 
and drove them almost to the Pyrenees, so that with the excep- 
tion of a narrow strip north of those mountains the whole of 
France was in the hands of the Franks. Clovis died in 511. 

The Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy. — In the meanwhile Italy 
had fallen into the hands of another German tribe. We have 
seen that Odoacer, the Visigothic chieftain who deposed the 
last of the Roman rulers in the West in 476 a.d., really had 
things his own way in Italy, although he was outwardly a mere 
agent of the Eastern emperor. Zeno, the Eastern emperor, 
took alarm at this ; but, being too weak to restore the imperial 
power himself in Italy, applied for aid to Theod'oric, king of 
the Ostrogoths, who were then living near the lower Danube. 

Theodoric (493-526 A.D.). — Theodoric, like Clovis, was one 
of the heroes of the early Germans. He had been brought up 
as a boy at Constantinople, and knew something of the splendor 
and culture of the empire. He also knew something of its 
weakness ; so he was more than willing to act as the emperor's 
avenger against Odoacer, hoping to gain for himself and his 
people the lands which Odoacer ruled. The whole tribe of 
Ostrogoths moved into Italy in the year 490, and having de- 
feated Odoacer and driven out his followers, established them- 
selves there in their place. The conquest was completed in 
three years, so the year 493 marks the real beginning of the 
Ostrogothic Kingdom. 

Theodoric had no idea of giving up his conquest to the em- 
peror, and although he rendered him a sort of allegiance, he 
was really independent, just as Odoacer had been. But he 
was a much greater and stronger ruler than Odoacer, and his 
kingdom was more extensive and more powerful ; for he did 



208 GENERAL HISTORY 

all lie could to make the natives friendly to him and to pre- 
serve peace between them and his own people. Though an 
Arian, he did not persecute the Catholics. Though a con- 
queror, he did not seize all the lands of the conquered, but 
allotted a certain portion to his followers and allowed the 
natives to keep the rest. He invited the best scholars of the 
time to his court and tried in every way to promote learning, 
though he himself did not know how to read or write. He 
governed according to the Roman law, which he saw was far 
better than the rude German system, and his reign was both 
peaceful and prosperous, but in its closing years he became 
cruel and suspicious. He thought that Boe'thius, the most 
learned man of his kingdom, was plotting against him, and he 
had him put to death. His orthodox subjects came to hate and 
fear him, and after his death, in 526, they took his ashes from 
the tomb and scattered them. His successors were weak rulers 
and the kingdom lasted less than thirty years after his death. 
As a result of the campaign of Belisa'rius and afterwards of 
Nar'ses, generals of the Eastern emperor Justinian, Italy was 
reconquered in 552, and reannexed for a short time to the 
Eastern Empire. 

The Roman Empire in the East. — For fifty years after the 
fall of the empire in the West, the Eastern rulers had been of 
little importance ; but we now come to an emperor whose reign 
is well worth notice. Justinian L, sometimes called the Great, 
ruled from 527, the year following Theodoric's death, to 565, 
and in the course of these years showed more capacity as a 
ruler than any other emperor in the East except Constantine. 
His reign is remarkable both for works of peace and for war- 
like achievements. Of the former the most important is the 
reduction to writing of the Koman law, a work involving enor- 
mous labor, which he intrusted to the great jurist Tribo'nian. 
When completed, this vast collection, containing imperial 
edicts, principles of legal procedure, and opinions of jurists, 
formed what is called the Body of the Civil Law, the basis of 
the law of most European countries to-day. 



THE NEW BARBARIAN KINGDOMS 209 

Another thing he did was to improve architecture. The 
Church of St. Sophi'a at Constantinople was built in his reign, 
and many strong fortresses were erected to defend the frontiers 
of his empire. Then^ too, his merchants introduced the manu- 
facture of silk into his dominions, stealing the secret, it is said, 
from the Chinese. In military matters, also, he knew how to 
select the right men to accomplish great results. Belisa'rius, 
his general, entered Africa with a small force and in a short 
time conquered the Vandals so completely that they disappear 
as a nation from history from that time forth. The Vandal 
kingdom was reannexed to the Eastern Empire in 534. 

Belisarius was just as successful in Italy, but there his suc- 
cess provoked the jealousy of Justinian, who recalled him and 
allowed another able general, named Narses, to complete the 
conquest (552). There are a great many stories about the in- 
gratitude of the emperor to Belisarius, and according to one 
account this brave and skillful general, who, even after he had 
been nnjustly recalled, saved Constantinople from the bar- 
barians, was deprived of his eyes and reduced to the condi- 
tion of a beggar. This may be doubted, but it is certain that 
he was very ill paid for his great services. 

Justinian died in 565. Only one emperor after Justinian 
did anything really remarkable. This was Herac'lius, who is 
noted for his military exploits in his campaigns against the 
Persians. He defeated the Persian king at Issus in Asia 
Minor, and again at Nin'eveh after a wonderful march into the 
heart of the enemy's country. He is classed with the world's 
great generals, but he accomplished nothing that lasted, and 
after his death, in 641, the territory of the empire was greatly 
curtailed. From this time till the fall of Constantinople, in 
1453, the doings of the rulers in the East will have very little 
interest for us, and we shall notice them only when they have 
some connection with events occurring in the West. 

The Kingdom of the Lombards in Italy (568). — The Lombards 
(or Langobards, the long-bearded people) were the last tribe to 
settle within the limits of the ancient Roman Empire. When 



210 GENERAL HISTORY 

Justinian died, Narses, who had completed the work begun by 
Belisarius in Italy, was ruling at Eavenna as the representa- 
tive of the empire ; but he soon found that his enemies at Con- 
stantinople were plotting to have him recalled. The imperial 
power was at that time in the hands of a woman named 
Sophia, who listened to the slanders of his rivals, and finally 
decided to call Narses back, sending him word that his proper 
place was " with the women in the palace, where a distaff should 
be placed in his hand." On hearing of this, Narses replied 
angrily that he would '' spin her a thread that she would never 
unravel in her life," and he straightway sent word to the Lom- 
bards, who were then living in Pannonia, that, so far as he was 
concerned, they would be welcome in Italy. Accordingly, the 
whole nation marched down and, in 568, set up a kingdom in 
Italy. Thus the restored power of the empire over Italy lasted 
just sixteen years, from 552 to 568. 

These- Lombards were harder rulers at first than the Ostro- 
goths had been. They were Arians and persecuted the Church. 
Their savage character is illustrated by a story that is told of 
their chief Al'boin. Alboin had married Rosamund, daughter 
of a Gepid chieftain whom Alboin had killed in battle, and 
on the occasion of a feast he offered her wine to drink in a 
cup made of her father's skull. Rosamund promptly avenged 
the insult by causing his murder. 

Conclusion. -^— The invasion of the Lombards in 568 brings 
us to the end of the period of the migrations. In the 190 
years between 378 and 568 there were gathered in the lands 
that had belonged to the Roman Empire a motley crowd of 
barbarians who left very little of the old order of things. 
They were the material out of which the new nations of 
Europe were formed. It now remains to trace the early his- 
tory of these nations, and to show their relations with each 
other and with the Christian Church. 



THE NEW BARBARIAN KINGDOMS 211 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The New Barbarian Kingdoms. — Value of the Study of the Middle 
Ages : The Period 476-1453 a.d. The Time of the Development of 
Modern Nations. — Character of the Middle Ages : Fusion of Romans 
and Barbarians. Effect of Rome's Civilization upon the Barbarians. 
The Influences that shaped Society in the Middle Ages. — The Found- 
ing of the Frankish Kingdom : The Migration of the Franks. The 
Merovingian Dynasty. Clovis, 481-511, His Victory at Soissons, 
480. His Policy toward the Christian Church. His Conversion, 4S)G. 
The Conversion of the Franks to Catholic Christianity and its Ef- 
fects. The Conquest of the Burgundians. The Visigoths driven out 
of France. —The Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy : Theodoric, 493-526 
a.d. His Invasion of Italy, 490. His Overthrow of Odoacer. 
Character of his Rule. Prosperity of Italy. Tyranny of Theodoric 
in his Later Years. — The Roman Empire in the East : Justinian I., 
527-565. Great Achievements of the Reign. The Body of the 
Roman Civil Law. Architecture. Industry. The Vandal King- 
dom reannexed to the Eastern Empire, 534. Belisarius. Italy 
reannexed to the Empire, 552. The Reign of Heraclius. — The 
Kingdom of the Lombards in Italy : The Lombards Conquer Italy, 
568. The Harsh Character of their Rule. — Conclusion : The Great 
Variety of Tribes within the Empire. 



CHAPTER XXIX 



THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS 




]'^^A, 



The Merovingians and the Mayors of the Palace. — The family 
of the Merovingians, after producing one great man, seemed to 
degenerate, and the successors of Clovis were weak or vicious 
men who let the royal power slip from their grasp and pass 
finally into the hands of a new dynasty. It would have been a 
hard task even for a strong and able ruler to enforce his au- 
thority over the Franks ; for they, like the other Germans, 
were extremely restive under royal 
control. Clovis himself found it diffi- 
cult to manage them ; for at first they 
viewed their king merely as one of 
themselves chosen to lead them in 
time of war. Their spirit is illustra- 
ted by the famous story of the vase 
of Soissons. Clovis, after gaining 
a victory over his enemies, reserved 
a beautiful vase as his share of the 
spoils; but one of his warriors, an- 
gered by the king's assuming a right 
which the others did not possess, 
broke the vase to pieces with his bat- 
tle-ax. For this he was slain; but 
the story shows how hard it was for 
the rude Franks to view their king 
as having any special rights or au- 
thority. 
The descendants of Clovis spent their time in idleness or, 
worse yet, in bloody feuds with members of their own family, 
while the royal power constantly diminished. In the reign of 
Dag'obert (628-638), who seems to have had more ability than 
any of the others, there was a brief interval of vigorous gov- 

212 




Fkankish Foot Soldier 



THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS 213 

eminent, but lie was followed by rulers as bad as those who 
had preceded him. Those who came after Dagobert are known 
as the Do-iSTothing Kings (rois faineants), and the period of 
their misrule is one of the darkest in history. 

As the king's power decreased, his officers became stronger 
and more independent. Next to the king the highest officer 
ill the country was he who bore the title 'Major Domus ' or 
Mayor of the Palace, and whose duty consisted originally in 
looking after the affairs of the king's household, but after- 
wards included very im^^ortant functions of state, correspond- 
ing roughly to those of a Prime Minister in modern times. 
In the latter part of the seventh century the office of Mayor of 
the Palace of the Eastern Franks became hereditary in the 
great family of the Pep'ins, who gained power at the expense 
of the king and finally under the name of the Carlovingians 
occupied the throne. Pepin of Heristal, as Mayor of the Pal- 
ace, ruled over the Eastern Franks as if he were their king, 
and by the victory of Testiy, in 687, extended his authority 
over the Western Franks as well. So he ruled over the entire 
kingdom with very little regard for the nominal king. 

Charles Mattel (714-741). — Charles, the son and successor 
of Pepin of Heristal, was a great fighter, and his reign was 
almost wholly taken up with Avars. There were enemies on 
all sides, and but for his unceasing efforts the kingdom would 
have been overrun by barbarous hordes. One great obstacle 
in his way was the independent spirit of the nobles, who dur- 
ing the decline of the royal power had come to feel that no 
one had any right to make demands on them. 

Since he could not force their obedience, he determined to 
buy it, and the only way he could manage this was by taking 
the lands of the Church. He seized a considerable amount 
of church property and granted it to fighting men on condition 
that they should aid him in his wars. This was an offense 
which the Church never forgave, but it was the only means 
open to him, and the time soon came when he needed all the 
forces he could raise to save Christendom from destruction ; for 
Colby's gen. hist. — 14 



214 GENERAL HISTORY 

the Mohammedan Saracens had conquered Spain and were pour- 
ing into southern France. They had conquered Africa, Asia 
Minor, and the East, and now they were bent on conquering all 
of Europe. It seemed as if they must succeed, for they had 
been uniformly victorious. They had advanced far into the in- 
terior of the Prankish territory before Charles could stop them, 
but in the plains between the cities of Tours and Poitiers he 
met them in a great battle and gained a complete victory, 732. 

The battle of Tours is one of the most important battles of 
history, for it decided whether Europe was to be Christian or 
Mohammedan. The heavy blows which Charles struck on this 
day on behalf of his country and his Church gained for him 
his surname of Martel', that is, the Hammer. After this no 
one questioned his power. He was in effect king of the 
Pranks, and yet he did not assume the kingly title, but al- 
lowed the insignificant Merovingian to wear the crown. 

By this time the Merovingian kings had sunk to the posi- 
tion of mere puppets of the Mayors of the Palace. Once a 
year they were clad in royal robes and carried in an ox cart 
to the National Assembly, where they recited a speech which 
was put into their mouths, received ambassadors, and ex- 
changed compliments with their officers. Then they were 
carried back again and shut up in their palace till the time 
came to repeat the solemn farce. 

Pepin the Short (741-768). — Charles Martel's extraordinary 
energy and ability were inherited by his son Pepin the Short. 
All power Avas concentrated in the hands of the Mayor of the 
Palace, and revolts were crushed out with promptness and 
severity. At last the time came for the assumption of the 
royal title ; but Pepin was cautious. He asked the pope (the 
Bishop of Rome) whether it was a good thing that one man 
should have the title of king without the power, while another 
had the power without the title. The pope replied that the 
man who had the power ought also to have the title. Soon 
afterwards the last of the old line of kings was shorn of his 
long hair, which was regarded as the sign of royalty, and was 



THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS 215 

confined in a monastery. Pepin was then crowned king witli 
the sanction of the pope (752). Thus ended the Merovin- 
gian line. The new dynasty of the Carlovingians or Carolin- 
gians thenceforth ruled over the Franks. 

The pope had a good reason for the favor he had shown 
Pepin in the matter of his coronation ; for he was at that time 
threatened by a powerful enemy and needed the aid of the 
Franks. The Lombards wanted to extend their power over 
all Italy, and after seizing the city of Ravenna and the adjoin- 
ing district, their king Ais'tulf demanded that the pope should 
acknowledge his supremacy. Pope Stephen in great distress 
crossed the Alps and in person begged Pepin to come to his 
aid. While at the king's court he repeated the ceremony of 
coronation, thus seeming to establish the principle that the 
popes alone could bestow the crown and were therefore 
superior to the temporal ruler. Pepin granted the pope's 
request and in two expeditions against Aistulf won back all 
that he had seized. 

Then he took a step that had very important results. He 
not only secured the pope in all that he had formerly pos- 
sessed, but he made him sovereign over an extensive strip 
of land in northern Italy, promising that he and his succes- 
sors should rule this land forever. This was the famous 
Donation of Pepin, by which the popes gained possession 
of what are known hi history as the Papal States and .became 
civil rulers like the kings of France or Germany. But for 
Pepin's assistance, the Lombards would have obtained all 
Italy, and the pope would have been merely the head of 
the Church, just as he is to-day. But as it was, Italy was 
under a divided government for 1100 years; for it was not 
till times very near our own that another king of Lombardy, 
Victor Emmanuel, succeeded in doing what Aistulf had at- 
tempted, and united all Italy under his sway. 

Pepin died in 768, after gaining almost every object that he 
had worked for. He was a singularly Avise and vigorous ruler. 
Nicknamed ^the Short' from his small size, — he is said to 



216 GENERAL HISTORY 

have been only four feet and a half in height, — he neverthe- 
less seems to have been both strong and brave. There is a story 
that Avhen looking at a combat between a lion and a bull he 
asked his courtiers if there was any one among them who dared 
to separate the two animals. When no one volunteered, he 
jumped into the arena himself and killed both the lion and the 
bull. After this no one laughed at him for being "a little 
man." This is probably an invention like a good many of the 
other tales about him, but it is very significant as showing the 
respect in which he was held. Men do not invent such stories 
about weak and cowardly princes. 

The Character of the Period. — During all these years be- 
tween the death of Clovis in 511 and the death of Pepin the 
Short in 768, the Franks had been making progress in civiliza- 
tion, but this progress was slow. The need of the times was 
for fighting, since, until they secured themselves against at- 
tacks, they were likely to be swept back into barbarism by an 
invasion of tribes less civilized than themselves. Under the 
later Merovingians this fighting energy was spent in useless 
wars among themselves rather than in extending and strength- 
ening their frontiers ; but men like Charles Martel and Pepin 
the Short turned it to better account, and by their ability built 
up a kingdom which the genius of their great successor Charle- 
magne Avas able to make into a powerful empire. 

One great difficulty Avhich the king had to overcome was 
the tendency of the nobles to make themselves independent. 
Weak kings could not check this tendency, and we have seen 
that even Charles Martel had to buy the services of his nobles 
by grants of land. Both Charles and Pepin strove with all 
their might to keep the nobles under their control, and they 
succeeded in greatly strengthening the royal power; but just as 
soon as an inefficient ruler comes to the throne we find the same 
force at work again, and it was destined to divide the state into 
little countships and duchies almost independent of the king. 
In other words, in this tendency we can trace the beginning of 
that condition of things which we call Feudalism (chap. 36). 



THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS 217 

Another very important fact about this period is that it was 
the time of the conversion of Germany to Christianity. The 
Frankish kings were strong friends of the Church, and they did 
all they could to convert the barbarians around them. St. Bon'- 
iface, called the Apostle to the Germans, was aided in every 
way by Charles Martel and Pepin. He carried the Gospel to the 
barbarous tribes living north of the Franks and along the shores 
of the Baltic Sea, and as fast as he won them to tlie faith he 
established bishoprics among them and brought them under the 
spiritual rule of the pope. With his own hand he cut down 
the sacred oak at Geismar, which they held in superstitious 
reverence, believing that the anger of their gods would send a 
terrible punishment to any one who injured it. When no light- 
ning fell from heaven to avenge this deed, many of them accepted 
the faith of Boniface. He closed his career with martyrdom, 
being slain by the Frisians, whom he was trying to convert. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

TiTE Kingdom of the Fkamcs. — The Merovingians and the Mayors of 
the Palace : The Weakness of the Later Merovingians. Unruly 
Spirit of the People. The Do-Nothing Kings. The Mayor of the 
Palace. Pepin of Heristal. His Victory at Testry, 687 a.d. Pepin 
the Real though not the Nominal King. — Charles Martel, 714-741 : 
Charles wins the Support of the Nobles by giving them the Lands of 
the Church. Mohammedan Invasion of Spain and Gaul. The Battle 
of Tours, 732, Importance of Charles's Victory. — Pepin the Short, 
741-768 : Pepin assumes the Title of King, 752, Encroachments of 
the Lombards on the Church. The Pope's Appeal to Pepin. Pepin 
checks the Lombards. The Donation of Pepin. Character of 
Pepin. — The Character of the Period : Slow Progress of Frankish 
Civilization. Warlike Spirit. Usurpation of Power by the Nobles. 
The Franks as Allies of the Church. Conversion of Barbarous 
Tribes. 



CHAPTER XXX 



CHARLEMAGNE 



Charlemagne's Inheritance. — At Pepin's death in 768 the 
kingdom of the Franks inchided the greater part of what is 
now France, together with a portion of Germany. This terri- 
tory was divided between his two sons, Carloman and Charles, 
who ruled over it together for three years, until 771, when, by 
the death of Carloman, Charles became the sole ruler. Charles, 
or to give him the title by which he is best known, Charle- 
magne (that is, Charles the Great), is the greatest figure in the 
history of the Middle Ages, and one of the ablest rulers of all 
time. His reign is itself an epoch in history ; for the work he 
did lived after him, and influenced the 
nations of Europe for centuries to come. 
From the first his object seems to 
have been to unite all German peoples 
in one great empire, and then to make 
that empire so strong that it would last 
forever. It was a work of enormous 
difficulty. On his accession he found 
his territory threatened by many ene- 
mies. To the north and east were the 
Danes and Saxons, who had not yet 
become civilized or converted to Christi- 
anity. In the region north of Italy 
^j^t ■ y were the Bavarians, who, although their 

^^tm duke had acknowleged Pepin as his 

"^S^: _ __ overlord, were ready to assert their in- 

dependence at the first chance. East of 
them were the Avars, a savage heathen 
race akin to the Huns. In the valley 
of the Po and to the north and northwest of Italy were 
the Lombards, enemies alike to the pope and to the Franks ; 

218 




Portrait Statue of Char 

LEMAGNE, IN PaRIS 



CHARLEMAGNE 219 

and in the southernmost part of France, on the Spanish border, 
were the Saracens. Add to these the Slavonic tribes of north- 
ern Germany, and the long list of Charlemagne's enemies is 
complete. With every one of these peoples he was called 
upon to fight ; and some idea of the amount of fighting he 
had to do can be had from the fact that in the course of his 
reign he directed fifty-three separate campaigns. It is possi- 
ble here to give only the main results of all these wars. 

Charlemagne's War with the Lombards. — The Lombards were 
no longer Arians. They had gradually come to accept the form 
of Christianity which was represented by the pope at Kome, 
but their belief in the pope's religion did not incline them to 
respect what he considered his rights to the lands of the Church. 
They wanted these lands for themselves, and Pepin's punish- 
ment of their king, Aistulf, for an attempt to seize them was 
soon forgotten. Deside'rius, who was king of the Lombards at 
the time Charlemagne was ruling the Franks, renewed the 
claim to the papal territory. The pope applied to Charle- 
magne for aid, just as he had applied to Pepin before. Charle- 
magne responded very willingly, and appeared in Italy with 
so powerful an army that the Lombards were too badly fright- 
ened to resist, and Desiderius was taken prisoner almost with- 
out striking a blow in his own defense. Charlemagne shut 
him up in a monastery, crowned himself with the iron crow^n 
of the Lombard kings, and thenceforth ruled over Lombardy, 
styling himself King of the Franks and Lombards. 

Tlius, in the year 774, the Lombard kingdom came to an end, 
after lasting a little over 200 years ; and from this time the Ger- 
man kings and emperors had a claim on Italy as a part of their 
inheritance. It now remained for Charlemagne to give back 
to the pope the lands which the Lombards had taken from him. 
This he did in the most solemn manner, taking an oath that he 
would protect the pope in the possession of all his lands, and 
formally renewing the gift of Pepin. 

The Saxons. — Two years before the Lombard conquest, 
Charlemagne began the first of a long series of campaigns 



220 GENERAL HISTORY 

against the Saxons. Of all his foes they were the bravest and 
the hardest to subdue. It took over thirty years to complete 
the conquest. Living along the lower courses of the Rhine 
and Elbe and in the country between those rivers, they had not 
come in contact with the Roman civilization, nor had they 
given up their old Pagan worship for the Christian faith. In 
fact, they were at about the same stage of development as that 
of the Franks four centuries before. 

Now that the Franks had become civilized, the presence of 
these lawless plunderers on their borders was a constant source 
of trouble, and at the same time it was thought to be the duty 
of a Christian people to bring their neighbors to the true faith, 
even if conversion could be accomplished only by force. So 
Charlemagne felt that he was serving his own interest and 
doing his duty to the Church at the same time when, in 772, he 
entered on his war with the Saxons. 

The details of his many campaigns against them are not 
known, but the general results of his expeditions seem to have 
been about the same. He would lead a large army into their 
territory, frighten them into submission, and then withdraw, 
thinking that he had conquered them ; but as soon as his back 
was turned, revolts would break out in another part of the 
Saxon country, and he would have it all to do over again. 
Thus, after a successful campaign in 772, when he entered 
their country and made them swear obedience to his rule, he 
turned his attention to the Lombards, but returned from Italy 
only to find the Saxons in open rebellion; and when he thought 
he had subdued them a second time in 776 and started off to 
punish the Saracens in the south, they again revolted. 

In this second revolt their leader was Wid'ukind, Avho for 
years held out against the Franks, and on one occasion won a 
decisive victory over them — a victory, however, which pro- 
voked Charlemagne to a very cruel revenge; for he took a 
large force into their country, and having as usual forced them 
to submit, required them to send to him all the warriors who 
had taken part in the revolt under Widukind. The Saxons 



i 



CHARLEMAGNE 221 

dared not disobey, and in a short time gave up to liini 4500 of 
their lighting men. Charlemagne gathered these prisoners at 
Verden and massacred them all. 

It would be hard to conceive of a more cruel act than this, 
and it is certainly a very dark page in the history of this great 
prince; but it must be remembered that it was a barbarous 
age, and that Charlemagne was dealing with a savage race, 
which could be governed only by fear. He had tried mild 
methods hitherto, and they had had no effect. It is probable 
that he hoped by this one act of cruelty to strike such terror 
into the Saxons that they would lay down their arms forever; 
but it had just the opposite effect, for the whole people united 
again under their brave leader Widukind, and fought more 
desperately than ever. Gradually, however, their strength 
gave way before the repeated attacks of the Franks, and each 
campaign left them in a worse condition to meet their ene- 
mies. Widukind lost all hope and surrendered himself to 
Charlemagne in 785, after which he is heard of no more in 
history. He had been the soul of the resistance, the ablest and 
bravest of all the Saxons, and there was no one fit to take his 
place ; but revolts continued to break out at intervals, and the 
country was not thoroughly subdued till 804. 

The conquest of the Saxons carried with it their conversion 
to Christianity, for Charlemagne believed in Christianizing by 
force. He spread the Gospel as far as he carried the sword, 
and obliged the conquered people to be baptized under the fear 
of death. As fast as he gained Saxon territory, he established 
bishoprics and enforced the strictest obedience to the repre- 
sentative of the Church, punishing by death any act of sacrilege 
or of violence toward the clergy. The laws were very severe, 
and the death penalty was inflicted for what seem to us com- 
paratively slight offenses ; but by these very means he increased 
the power of the Church, for it was provided that any Saxon 
who had committed a crime could save himself from the sentence 
of death by confessing his deed to a priest. His policy was 
very successful. The Saxons were soon the most devout of 



222 



GENERAL HISTORY 



churchmen, and at the same time they became the most loyal 
subjects of the empire. 

The Bavarians. — Tassilo, Duke of the Bavarians, had ac- 
knowledged Charlemagne's father, Pepin, as his chief, but 
had continued to rule without much regard to the king of the 
Franks. His territory bordered on the Prankish kingdom and 
on the lands of the Lombards whom Charlemagne had sub- 
dued, so that if it were annexed to the Prankish state it would 
give Charlemagne control of all the country as far east as the 
Danube. Charlemagne at first demanded that the Bavarian 
duke should acknowledge him as his overlord. Tassilo dared 
not refuse, but soon afterwards showed a rebellious spirit, 
and even asserted his independence. Thereupon Charlemagne 
promptly marched into Bavaria and forced the duke to ac- 
knowledge his supremacy a second time, in 787. A little later 
he deposed him altogether and shut him up in a monastery, 
thus putting an end to the Bavarian line of rulers. In this 
way another strong German people was united with the 
Pranks, whose rule now extended from the Atlantic Ocean 
as far east as Bohemia, over regions occupied wholly by Ger- 
manic tribes. 

Saracens, Slavs, and Avars. — Charlemagne now had to deal 
with certain non-Germanic peoples who were threatening his 
borders. These were the Saracens, Slavs, and Avars. The 

Mohammedan Saracens, or 
Moors, had gained posses- 
sion of the whole of Spain, 
but there were still small 
fragments of the ancient 



Visigothic kingdom in the 
north. It was to save these 
little Christian states from 
their Mohammedan oppres- 
sors, as well as to round out 

the limits of his own kingdom, that Charlemagne imdertook a 

campaign against the Saracens. 




Sakacen Arm8 



1 



CHARLEMAGNE 223 

Without much trouble he drove the Saracens beyond the 
Ebro, and made that river the southern boundary of his domin- 
ions. On his way back the rear guard was attacked in the 
mountain pass of Roncesvalles, and some of his bravest war- 
riors were killed — among them Koland, whose exjoloits are 
celebrated in the famous Song of Roland, which has come 
down to us from the Middle Ages ; but the deeds of Roland 
are more a matter of legend than of history, for all that we 
know positively about him is that he perished in the fight at 
Roncesvalles. This battle did not regain for the Saracens what 
they had lost ; for so long as Charlemagne lived, the sway of 
the Franks extended to the Ebro. 

The Slavs lived in the lands east of the river Elbe, and in 
the country now called Bohemia. Charlemagne found it easy 
to subdue them, but not so easy to keep them in subjection ; 
for they were a rude, unruly people, constantly fighting with 
the Germans on the border. The Avars occupied the country 
east of Bavaria, and kept the Bavarians busy in defending 
themselves from their attacks ; but Charlemagne brought them 
to terms in a single campaign in 791. 

Charlemagne's Dominions. — At the close of the eighth cen- 
tury Charlemagne's dominions extended from the Atlantic 
Ocean on the west to modern Hungary on the east, and from 
the Baltic Sea to the river Ebro in Spain. They covered as 
much ground as the western division of the old Roman Empire. 
All this territory was occupied by Germanic peoples, many of 
whom, before the time of Charlemagne, were wholly independ- 
ent of the Franks. 

Restoration of the Empire. — Yet Charlemagne still had only 
the title King of the Franks and Lombards. To the men of 
that day it seemed natural that the ruler of this vast territory, 
which was, in fact, an empire, should receive the title of 
emperor; for his power was far greater than that of the 
ruler at Constantinople, who was still called Roman Emperor. 
It seemed as if the empire in the West had, in fact, been 
restored ; but instead of being Roman, as before, it was now 



224 



GENEEAL HISTORY 



German from one end of it to tlie other, altliougli in the 
southern portions, in France, Spain, and Italy, there was a 
strong Eomaii element in the population. But the question 
was, how was Charlemagne to obtain the title of emperor ? 
Should he assume it himself, and if not, by whom should it be 
given to him ? The matter was settled in the following way. 

The popes, as Ave have seen, were strong friends of the 
Franks, from whose kings they had received many favors in 
the past and hoped for more in the future. At the same time 




they had become enemies of the Eastern Roman emperors, who 
were still the nominal rulers over Italy and the West, although 
no one respected their authority in those regions. The East- 
ern and Western churches had divided on questions relating to 
the worship of images and other matters, and the emperors had 
often tried to curtail the powers of the popes. So by restoring 



CHARLEMAGNE 225 

the empire in the West and giving the crown to the king of the 
Franks the Church woukl secure a protector against any en- 
croachments from Constantinople. 

Charlemagne crowned Emperor. — Such w as the condition of 
things in the year 800. On Christmas Day of that year Char- 
lemagne was in Rome, attending the services at St. Peter's; 
while he was kneeling in prayer, Pope Leo III. suddenly 
approached him, placed on his head a golden crown, and 
saluted him as emperor. This act was regarded as the resto- 
ration of the Eoman Empire, and Charlemagne was hailed 
as the successor of the Caesars, although there had been no 
Caesars in the West for over 300 years ; that is, since 476. 

It seems strange to us that the people of that day could re- 
gard this as in any sense a Roman Empire, but they did; and 
what is more, this idea of a great imperial government extend- 
ing over all Europe possessed men's minds for many centuries, 
for it was not till modern times that people came to believe that 
each nation should be left to govern itself in its own way. The 
lands that Charlemagne ruled passed through many changes 
after his death, but his successors in Germany were called 
emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, and this title was held 
by them till the year 1806. 

Rome was the capital of this restored empire, and Italy be- 
longed in theory to the successors of Charlemagne on the Ger- 
man throne. As a result, the German emperors were continually 
engaged Avith Italian affairs to the neglect of their national 
interests, and neither Italy nor Germany developed a strong, 
centralized government till centuries after the states of west- 
ern Europe had reached that stage. Another thing to be noted 
is the fact that the pope crowned Charlemagne. This seemed 
to imply that the pope was superior to the emperor, and that 
no emperor's title was valid unless sanctioned by him. Thus 
there was established a precedent for later popes to assert the 
claim of supremacy over all earthly rulers in temporal as well 
as religious matters, a claim which led to a long and bitter con- 
flict between -emperors and popes. So it is clear that this core- 



226 GENERAL HISTORY 

nation of Charlemagne had some very important and lasting 
effects. 

German Independence. — Charlemagne died in 814. During 
the fourteen years that followed his coronation, he applied 
himself to the work of building up a strong centralized govern- 
ment and improving the condition of his people. To centralize 
the government, that is, to get all the power into the hands of 
the emperor, was a hard task ; for the Germans had always been 
very jealous of any attempt to restrict their freedom. They 
believed in an exactly opposite kind of government, — one in 
which power did not come from the king, but from the people 
gathered in their national assemblies. The idea of the Roman 
Empire was that all authority came from above; that is, from 
the emperor. The idea of the Germans had been that all 
authority came from below; that is, from the freemen. More- 
over, the Germans were inclined to form little states under 
dukes or counts who were virtually independent. 

Charlemagne's Government. — Charlemagne tried to check 
this tendency by making every one take an oath of allegiance 
to him and by appointing the officers who should rule for 
him in different parts of the country, but there was danger 
that these officers would usurp some of his authority and 
come to regard themselves as ruling in their own right. 
This was especially likely to happen on the frontier or mark, 
where the local count or margrave was constantly fighting 
with enemies across the border and perhaps winning new lands 
by conquest. To meet this difficulty, Charlemagne created a set 
of officers, called the Missi (messengers), whose duty it was to 
visit all parts of the country, and bring back reports of what 
the various governors were doing. By these means and, above 
all, by his great personal energy and the awe that his name in- 
spired, he held his vast dominions together and made his will 
supreme. 

But his work was not lasting; for his successors were 
not great enough to keep it up, and we shall find that after 
his death the tendency towards separation and independ- 




CHARLEMAGNE , 227 

ence proved too strong to be controlled, and finally resulted in 
that division of Europe into petty countships and dukedoms 
which is the characteristic of what is called the Feudal System. 
Charlemagne's Influence on Literature. — One of the best proofs 
of Charlemagne's greatness is the fact that in a barbarous age, 
when fighting seemed to be the only object in men's lives, 
he saw so clearly the advantages of education, and did so 
much to encourage learning. According to the standard of 
those times, he himself was a learned man; for he read 
and spoke Latin, is said to have understood Greek, and was 
familiar with some of the best writings of scholars, although 
he never learned to write even in his native 
German language. He called learned men 
to his court and lived in daily intercourse 
with them, discussing all sorts of subjects 
on which he thought they could give him 

. „ ,. AT- ,1 /. T-IT1 Charlemagne's Sig- 

mformation. Alcum, the famous English nature. 

scholar, lived at his court, and Eginhard, (Only the central portion 
who wrote The Life of Charlemagne, was his the other letters, form- 

. T j>". nxi "iTi ing: the name Karolus, 

secretary. in lact, all the great literary being written by a sec- 
men received encouragement from him, and ^^^^^^•■^ 
he did an important literary work himself by making a col- 
lection of German popular songs. 

Education. — But the work he did directly for education was 
the most important. He established a school at his own resi- 
dence, called the School of the Palace, for the education of his 
family and all who were attached to the court, and he required 
every monastery to maintain a school, where the monks were to 
give instruction to the youth of the neighborhood, especially 
to those entering the priesthood. He seems to have valued 
learning and industry more highly than noble birth ; for his 
biographer tells a story about his returning after a long ab- 
sence to a school which he had founded and promising high 
offices and rich rewards to the lowborn scholars who had done 
good work, while for the noblemen's sons who had idled away 
their time he had only harsh words, saying that he cared little 



228 GENERAL HISTORY 

for their " pretty looks and noble birth, though others think 
them so fine," and that they should have no favors from him 
unless they worked to deserve them. 

Character of Charlemagne. — He himself was the busiest and 
most energetic man of his time. No detail seemed beneath 
his notice, and he managed everything in his empire, from 
the affairs of his own household to the government of the 
most remote districts. In size and strength he was a giant, 
and he was fond of testing his powers by the hardest kinds 
of exercise. He was simple in his habits, and hated drunk- 
enness, which was the prevailing vice of the Germans. At 
table it was his practice to have some one read aloud to him 
from some standard woi'k on history or religion, his favorite 
book being St. Augustine's City of God. 

Results of his Reign. — In general, he was generous and 
kindly in all his relations, both as a ruler and as a man, 
and his biographers have much to say of the mildness that 
characterized his dealings with friends and foes alike. He 
was something more than a mere conqueror; for he aimed 
to civilize as well as to subdue, and he saw that he could 
do this best by limiting his empire to peoples of the same 
race. What he did was to gather the German peoples of 
Europe together, make them conscious of their kinship, and 
teach them a lesson in civilization which they never forgot, 
although the empire which he founded soon passed away. 

Division of the Empire. — In the reign of Charlemagne's 
weaker son, Louis the Pious, the empire began to go to pieces, 
and on his death it was divided between his three sons, one of 
whom was called emperor, but ruled over only a small portion 
of the original empire. Under these Carolingian emperors 
and kings, the successors of Charlemagne, we shall trace in 
a later chapter the beginnings of modern France and Ger- 
many. 



RISE OF THE PAPAL POWER 229 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Charlemagne. — His Inheritance: He becomes Sole Ruler, 771. Im- 
portance of his Reign. His Enemies. Necessity of Constant Fight- 
ing. — Charlemagne's War with the Lombards: Charlemagne's 
Championship of the Pope. Charlemagne becomes King of the 
Lombards. He confirms Pepin's Gift to the Pope. — The Saxons: 
Difficulty of subduhig the Saxons. General Character of the 
Campaigns. The Murder of Saxon Prisoners. Widukind. Impor- 
tance of the Conquest of the Saxons. Their Forcible Conversion to 
Christianity. — The Bavarians : Tassilo. Charlemagne's Invasion. 
The Conquest of the Bavarians. — Saracens, Slavs, and Avars : Char- 
lemagne's Invasion of Spain. Prankish Power extended to the Ebro. 
Charlemagne's Successes against the Slavs and Avars. — Charle- 
magne's Dominions: Wide Extent of the Prankish Territory. — 
Restoration of the Empire : The Causes that led to the Coronation 
of Charlemagne. — Charlemagne crowned Emperor, 800 a.d. : Im- 
portance of the Coronation. The Papal Claim to Superiority. — 
German Independence : The Difficulty of enforcing Obedience. — 
Charlemagne's Government : His Efforts at Centralization. The 
Missi. The Effects not Permanent. — Charlemagne's Influence on 
Literature : His Encouragement of Learning. — Education : The 
Palace School. His Encouragement of Education. — Character of 
Charlemagne : His Mastery of Details. His Habits. — Results of his 
Reign : Civilizhjg Effect. — Division of the Empire. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

RISE OF THE PAPAL POWER 

The Early Christian Church. — At first the apostles of Christ 
were the governors of the Church. Under the apostles the 
bishops, or elders, directed the affairs of the congregation of 
believers. Following the death of the apostles, there was a 
period lasting many years, during which we have very scanty 
records of church history, and when in the second century 
A.D. the sources of information become more complete, we find 
Colby's c;e\. nisx. — 15 



230 GENERAL HISTORY 

that the bishops are regarded as the successors of the apostles, 
and have authority over several congregations. 

Church Government. — At the head of every Roman province 
was a provincial governor, who controlled the governors of the 
smaller divisions of the province. In like manner there arose 
among the bishops of a province one who possessed author- 
ity over the rest. He was called an Archbishop or Metropoli- 
tan Bishop. Finally, in some of the great cities the heads 
of the Church acquired authority over all the church officers 
in that region and became what were called Patriarchs. There 
were five great Patriarchates, whose capitals were Rome, Con- 
stantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. Next came 
the archbishops or metropolitan bishops, then the bishops, and 
finally the priests, who were the heads of single congrega- 
tions. 

Rise of the Christian Church. — In the meanwhile the Church 
had risen from the position of a poor and obscure sect, hold- 
ing its meetings in secret and suffering continual and bitter 
persecution, to a state of dignity, power, and wealth. In the 
eyes of the Romans a Christian had been regarded as a crimi- 
nal, for he detested their gods and refused to believe in the 
divinity of their emperors after death. He was a member 
of an illegal association, and as such liable to the severest 

punishments. But in spite of 
every kind of persecution, the 
Church grew in numbers and 
power till, as we have seen, Con- 
stantine granted it full legal tol- 
eration in 313. From this time 
on its power increased year by 
year. 

Power of the Bishop of Rome. 

Papai, Embi.kms — Ii^ speaking of the Roman 

bishop we shall often refer to his 

spiritual power as distinguished from his temporal power. 

By the first is meant his authority in matters of church gov- 




RISE OF THE PAPAL POWER 231 

ernmeiit aud doctrine, his power to bind men's consciences 
and decide finally on questions of belief. Temporal power, 
on the other hand, means the same kind of authority as that 
exercised by kings or magistrates, and pertains only to worldly 
matters. By various means the Koman bishops secured both 
these kinds of power. They were both spiritual directors and 
civil rulers. 

It is important to understand how they came to possess 
this vast authority. The chief ground of the Roman bishop's 
greater power was the belief that St. Peter had founded the 
Roman Church and was himself its first bishop. As St. Peter 
was the ' Prince of the Apostles,' so the Roman Church was 
regarded as superior to the other churches. Another thing 
which gave the Roman bishops an advantage over all others 
was the awe which people felt for the city of Rome, as the 
capital of the world. It was natural that the bishop of the 
Roman diocese should be regarded as more important than 
the head of the Church in some minor city. 

Then the emperors had removed from Rome to Constan- 
tinople, and the Roman bishop was not overshadowed by the 
presence of a more imposing personage than himself, nor was 
he liable to be interfered with so often as if the emperor had 
been close at hand. When the empire was destroyed, the 
Bishop of Rome was the only great representative of law and 
order in the West, and was obliged to exercise much of the 
authority that had formerly belonged to the emperor. 

The Early Popes. — These are some of the circumstances that 
tended to build up the papacy, but much was due to the per- 
sonal character of some of the early bishops, and to the great 
services the Roman Church had rendered to Christianity and 
civilization. Leo the Great (440-461), the pope whose prayers 
induced Attila to spare Rome, was a man of extraordinary 
ability and devotion to the Church, and he bent all his ener- 
gies to winning for the Roman bishop a position of authority 
over the whole Church. Another singularly able pope was 
Gregory the Great (590-604), whose missionary, Augustine, 



232 GENERAL HISTORY 

began the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons (596). Men like 
these made the office venerable, and people turned to the Roman 
bishop as the final authority on church matters. In fact, from 
the time of Gregory the Great we may apply to these bishops 
the higher title of pope (Lat. papa, father), for their power 
was greater than that of any other ecclesiastical officers in 
Christendom. 

Temporal Power of the Popes. — The influences above de- 
scribed tended chiefly to increase the spiritual power of the 
popes, but there were some forces which affected mainly their 
temporal power. In the first place, they became large owners 
of land, through the piety of wealthy Christians, who, on dying, 
left their estates to the Church. In the same way they ac- 
quired much property of other kinds, and increase of wealth 
brought increase of power. Moreover, they took their place 
in the feudal system, and feudal privileges were granted to 
them as to other vassals (chap. 36). 

Donations of Constantine and Pepin. — The most magnificent 
gift of land was Avliat was called the Donation of Constantine. 
According to the story, Constantine was miraculously cured of 
the leprosy by Pope Sylvester, and in his gratitude gave the 
pope the right to rule over all Italy. Furthermore, it was 
said that Constantine's motive in moving his capital from 
Rome to Constantinople was that the popes might not be 
hampered by the presence of an emperor in the West. Al- 
though it is now held that the Donation of Constantine was a 
forgery, it was accepted for many years and aided the popes in 
extending their temporal power. 

A more substantial basis for that power, however, was 
Pepin's donation of the strip of land in northern Italy, a gift 
which was afterwards renewed by Charlemagne. This land 
was the nucleus of the Papal States, which the pope governed 
as a civil ruler. The popes not only gained lands which they 
governed in their own right, but they gained certain impor- 
tant powers in the lands of other sovereigns. For instance, 
in the matter of punishing the crimes of the clergy, the popes 



RISE OF THE PAPAL POWER 233 

claimed that their courts alone had jurisdiction, while the 
king or emperor held that as the clergy were his subjects, they 
should be tried by his courts. 

The Isidorian Decretals. — The papal claim was greatly 
strengthened by the so-called Isidorian Decretals, a collection 
of documents which appeared about the middle of the ninth 
century, and appeared to show that from the earliest times the 
popes had actually exercised all the rights which they claimed 
in later times. Hundreds of years passed before their falsity 
was discovered. 

The Papacy in the Ninth Century. — Before the end of the 
ninth century the papal power had become very extensive, as 
is evident from the following illustration. Lothair II., king 
of Lotharingia, had grown tired of his wife Teutberga and 
sent her away after accusing her of all manner of horrible 
crimes. He wished the Church to legalize the divorce and 
permit him to marry another. Two councils of the German 
clergy, being afraid to decide against his wishes, agreed that 
Teutberga was guilty of the crimes charged and that he might 
lawfully divorce her. The pope did not hesitate to set aside 
the decision of both these councils and declare the king's act 
illegal. He then made Lothair take back his lawful wife. If 
a pope could discipline a king in this way and decide upon the 
legality of his acts, it is evident that the power of the papacy 
had already become well established. 

Monasticism. — During the persecutions of the early Church 
many left the cities and took refuge in the mountains or in the 
desert, where they led lonely lives, but at least found safety and 
peace. At the same time many sought those places of their 
own free will, from a desire to escape the temptations of the 
world, and to give themselves up wholly to religious medita- 
tions and prayer. The deserts of Egypt were the earliest 
resort for this class of people ; some of them, called hermits or 
anchorites, dwelling entirely alone ; others, known as monks or 
cenobites, living together in small bands. Their aim being to 
rid themselves of all worldly thoughts and desires and fix their 



234 GENERAL HISTORY 

minds solely on the next world, they resorted to the severest 
kind of penances, thinking to kill the desires of the flesh by 
torturing the body. 

These self-inflicted punishments were carried to a point that 
is almost inconceivable to the modern mind ; for the voluntary 
endurance of suffering seemed to them a proof of the highest 
virtue and a guarantee of salvation in the world to come. It is 
told of St. Macarius of Alexandria that he lived for six months 
in a marsh and exposed his naked body to the stings of insects. 
Other saints would starve themselves for months ; carry heavy 
weights of iron wherever they went ; live in the vilest kind of 
dens — holes in the ground or caves; go without sleeping and 
without washing. 

The idea that saintliness was measured by suffering had a 
firm hold on men's minds. A very famous saint, named John, 
is said to have spent three years leaning against a rock. He 
never lay down, and his only nourishment is said to have been 
the Sacrament, which was brought to him on Sundays. But 
most famous of all was St. Simeon Styli'tes, the Pillar Saint, 
who stood for thirty years on the top of a column, in all 
kinds of weather, continually bending his body in prayer. 
Pilgrims came to see him from far and near, and he had sev- 
eral imitators. 

The Benedictines. — But all this applies especially to the 
early period of monasticism, and chiefly to the form of it that 
flourished in Egypt and the East. In the West the system 
showed a more practical tendency. There the order founded 
by St. Ben 'edict (480-543), and called after him Benedic'tine, 
did good w^ork in the cause of civilization. To the usual 
vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience was added the rule 
that the monks must work in the fields during a part of each 
day. As a result, the best-cultivated lands of Europe were 
those around the monasteries, which thus set a good example 
to the people, and improved the methods of agriculture. 

The Monasteries and Learning. — The monasteries rendered a 
great service to learniug by preserving and copying the writ- 



RISE OF THE PAPAL POWER 235 

ings of classic authors. They were, moreover, the charitable 
institutions of the time, caring for the poor and the infirm, and 
giving shelter to travelers. But one thing especially deserves 
attention. They were stanch supporters of the papacy and 
greatly aided in advancing its power; for a monk was, in a 
sense, a soldier of the Church. Without wife or children to 
bind his interests with those of the people among whom he 
lived, his whole devotion was centered in the Church. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Rise of the Papal Power. — The Early Christian Church : The Power 
of the Bishops. Authority from Above. Church Government : 
The Archbishops. The Five Patriarchs. — Rise of the Christian 
Church: The Toleration of Christianity, 313 a.d,— Power of the 
Bishop of Rome : Spiritual Power. Temporal Power. Influences 
that extended the Power of the Roman Bishops. Character of the 
Early Bishops. — The Early Popes: Leo the Great. Gregory the 
Great. — Temporal Power of the Popes. — Donation of Constantine : 
The Donation of Pepin. The Papal States. — The Isidorian Decre- 
tals : Their Effect on the Temporal Power of the Popes. — The 
Papacy in the Ninth Century. — Monasticism : Hermits. Anchor- 
ites. Self-inflicted Punishments, The Pillar Saints. — The Bene- 
dictines : The Industry of the Monks. — The Monasteries and 
Learning. Charities. Their Devotion to the Church. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

EUROPE UNDER THE LATER CAROLINGIANS 

The Later Carolingians. — The descendants of Charlemagne 
ruled in Germany till 911, in France till 987. but in all these 
years the family did not produce a single prince capable of 
carrying on the work begun by their great ancestor. To be 
sure, the work of holding the empire together became far more 
difficult as the years passed, on account of the tendency to 
separation and subdivision of its parts ; but these kings, with 



236 GENERAL HISTORY 

few exceptions, were feeble rulers, whose very names seem to 
indicate the slight regard in which they were held, for they 
have come down to us coupled with disrespectful nicknames, 
such as • the Bald,' '■ the Fat,' ' the Stammerer,' ' the Simple,' 
nhe Do-Nothing,' and 'the Child.' 

Division of the Empire. — Charlemagne had the old German 
idea that each son must inherit a portion of his father's land. 
Accordingly, in his lifetime he divided his empire between 
his three sons, thus setting an example for the very thing he 
wished to avoid ; namely, the breaking up of the great empire 
which he himself had taken such pains to hold together. But 
the death of the two elder sons left Louis, surnamed the Pious, 
the sole heir to his father's dominions. 

Louis the Pious. — Charlemagne himself is said to have placed 
the imperial crown on his son's head. Whether this is so or not, 
it is certain that Louis was not in the first instance crowned by 
the pope, and that on his father's death in 814 he succeeded to 
all the latter's power without the express sanction of the Roman 
bishop; but Louis was a strong friend of the Church, and 
seems not to have regarded his coronation as valid, for he 
soon afterwards had the pope recrown him. Thus both Charle- 
magne and Louis the Pious received their crowns from the 
pope, giving color to the later claims of the papacy to supe- 
riority over the empire. 

Character of Louis. — Louis had many virtues as a man, but 
they were not of the kind to make him a good ruler. He was 
gentle and humane, but lacked force of character. He could 
not hold either his sons or his nobles to obedience, and he 
gave himself up completely to the influence of his advisers; 
so that in complying too much with the wishes of one person, 
he would often forget the rights of another. 

Quarrels with his Sons. — Almost all his reign was taken up 
with quarrels with his sons about the share of the empire 
which each should inherit ; for, like Charlemagne, he seemed 
to think that the empire must be divided. In the first place, 
he gave his eldest son Lothair the central part of the empire, 



europp: under the later carolingians 237 

including Italy. This was by far the largest share, and besides 
tliis Lothair was to receive the title of emperor. Naturally 
the younger brotliers, Pepin and Louis the German, felt ag- 
grieved, and matters were further complicated by the birth of 
a fourth son, Charles (afterwards known as Charles the Bald), 
for whom a share had to be found. 

The Field of Lies. — The attempts of Louis the Pious to carve 
out a kingdom for Charles by taking from the lands of the 
others involved him in continual disputes. First one and 
then another would think himself unfairly treated and threaten 
to revolt. On one occasion the three elder sons joined forces 
and prepared to meet their father in battle. For three days 
the two armies stood face to face, but Lothair won over his 
father's followers by fair promises and the old emperor, finding 
himself deserted by his troops, was forced to yield. This 
scene of treachery and shame is known in history as the 
Field of Lies. 

Finally Pepin, Avhose share included part of what is now 
France, died, and Charles the Bald obtained all the western 
part of the empire. Lothair held abnost all the rest, and 
Louis the German had little more than Bavaria for his share. 
This was the state of things when the miserable reign of 
Louis the Pious came to an end. This prince had shown him- 
self utterly incapable of dealing with the difficult questions of 
the time, and to his successors he bequeathed a weakened and 
divided empire and the necessity of a disastrous war. 

Battle of Fontenay. — Just before his death Louis the Pious 
had sent Lothair the imperial crown. Lothair took this to mean 
that he had authority over his brothers, who, seeing their com- 
mon danger, combined to oppose him. The allied army of 
Louis the German and Charles the Bald met Lothair's forces in 
the battle of Fon'tenay in 841. The result was the .complete 
defeat of Lothair and the formation of a treaty which recog- 
nized the younger brothers in the independent possession of 
their lands. 

Treaty of Verdun. — This was the famous Treaty of Verdun' 



238 GENERAL HISTORY 

(843). By it Lotbair retained Italy and a strip of territory 
extending between tbe lands of bis brotbers from tbe Alps 
to tbe Nortb Sea. To tbe east of tliis strip was tbe dominion 
of Louis tbe German, a territory inbabited by purely German 
peoples. To tbe west of it was tbe sbare of Cbarles tbe Bald, 
almost wbolly witliin tbe limits of modern France. So tbe 
Treaty of Verdun is of tbe greatest bistorical importance ; for 
in tbe respective sbares of Louis tbe German and Cbarles tbe 
Bald we see tbe beginnings of tbe two great modern nations, 
Germany and France. 

In tbe part over wbicb Cbarles tbe Bald ruled tbere was a 
strong Gallic and Roman element in tbe population, and tbe 
language spoken tbere was already beginning to resemble tbe 
modern Frencb, wbile in Louis tbe German's territory the peo- 
ple spoke only German. In Lotbair's strip of land between 
tbese two divisions tbere was a mixed population. Part of 
tbis territory seemed naturally to belong to tbe Western king- 
dom, and part of it to tbe Eastern. So, as we sball see, tbese 
lands became in after years a bone of contention between tbe 
rulers of France and Germany. For tbese reasons it is some- 
times said tbat all tbe later bistory of western Europe is 
"but an exposition of tbe Treaty of Verdun." 

Lothair's Share. — Tbe ''enquire" of Lotbair appears very 
insignificant in comparison with tbe vast dominions of bis 
grandfather Charlemagne. The part north of Italy included 
tbe land between the Rhone and Scheldt on the west and 
Rhine on the east, together with the country known as Frisia, 
at tbe mouth of the Rhine. To keep tbis long, narrow region, 
with its indefensible frontier and ill-assorted peoples, under a 
single government was an impossible task, and Lotbair divided 
it among bis three sons, giving to one of them the title of 
emperor, just as Louis tbe Pious had done before him. 

It is evident tbat tbis dividing and subdividing Avould soon 
leave very little of tbe original empire. One of Lotbair's sons, 
Lotbair IT., obtained all tbe part north of Italy except Bur- 
gundy and Provence. This was known as Lotlmrii Regnum 



EUROPE UNDER THE LATER CAROLINGIANS 



^39 



(Lothair's kingdom), a term which was afterwards corrupted 
into Lotharin'gia, whence the modern name Lorraine' (German 
Loth'ringen), still applied to a portion of the lands once ruled 
by Loth air II. 

But even this comparatively small tract of land could not be 
held together, for on Lothair Il.'s death his uncles seized and, 
in 870, divided it between them, Louis the German taking the 
eastern portion. Hence arose the claim of Germany to the 



CENTKAL E\ 
in A.D. 




lands between the Moselle and the Rhine, and the dispute 
between France and Germany which exists to-day in what we 
know as the Alsace-Lorraine question. The lands which Louis 
the German obtained in 870 Avere, after the changes of a thou- 
sand years, again annexed to Germany by the Emperor Wil- 
liam as a result of the Franco-German war of 1870-71. 

The Carolingians in Germany. — Louis the German managed, 
by dint of hard lighting, to keep his dominions together and 
transmit them to his three ^ons. Two of these sons died, and 
the survivor, Charles the Fat, inherited the whole land. For 
a short time it seemed as if the empire of Charlemagne had 
been restored, for Charles, who had been crowned emjDcror by 



240 GENERAL HISTORY 

the pope (882), also obtained the throne of the Western Franks, 
but he was weak in body and in mind, and quite unequal to 
the task of government. He let the Northmen plunder France, 
and on one occasion, having started to rescue Paris from their 
attacks, he was afraid to risk a battle, and made the disgraceful 
promise that they should have Burgundy to i^lunder if they 
Avould let Paris alone. The nobles soon tired of him, and were 
glad enough when a new claimant for the throne put in an 
appearance. 

The End of the Dynasty in Germany. — This new claimant 
was Arnulf of Bavaria. He was a man of energy and strong 
will, and having caused the deposition of his uncle, Charles 
the Fat (887), he determined to make himself a real emperor. 
In 896 he was crowned at Rome, and even before that his 
supremacy had been acknowledged in France and Germany. 
But it was too late to piece together the fragments of the 
empire. Italy and France were under separate and indepen- 
dent rulers, and he had all he could do to hold his own in 
Germany against the growing power of the dukes and to pro- 
tect his eastern frontiers against the Slavs. With Arnulf's 
successor, Louis the Child, the Carolingian line in Germany 
came to an end (911). 

State of Germany. — During all this time the royal or im- 
perial power in Germany had been steadily decreasing, while 
the duchies had been gradually gaining strength. These 
duchies were four in number, — Franconia, Saxony, Suabia, 
Bavaria, — and there were, besides, several marches, or border 
countries, which, like the duchies, tended to make themselves 
independent of royal control. So Germany became the scene 
of endless conflict between the kings and the dukes or counts. 

The Carolingians in France. — Much the same state of things 
existed in France. Charles the Bald and his successors were 
too Aveak to repulse the attacks of the Northmen, and 
permitted them to burn and plunder some of their fairest 
cities. When the Northmen besieged Paris in 885, it was not 
the Carolingian king, but one of his feudal subjects, Count 



EUKOPE UNDER THE LATER CAROLINGIANS 241 

Odo of Paris, who saved the city. After the deposition of 
Charles the Fat, Odo gained the throne as a reward ; bnt on 
his death the Carolingians returned to power, Odo naming as 
his successor Charles the Simple, who allowed the Northmen 
under Rollo to settle in the north of France, in the province 
thenceforth known as Normandy (911). 




End of the Dynasty in France. — Already two little separate 
kingdoms, Burgundy and Provence', had set themselves up 
within the limits of what is now France, and under Charles 
the Simple and his successors, the great lords usurped more 
and more of the royal power until they became nearly, if not 
quite, as strong as the Fi-ench king himself. Finally, when the 
last Carolingian in the direct line had died (987), the dukes 
and counts decided to elect one of their own number as king, 
and they chose Hugh Capet, the descendant of that Odo who 
had fought the Northmen at Paris. Thus ended the Carolingian 
line in France. The new dynasty, called Cape'tian from the 
name of its founder, ruled the country for nearly three centuries 
and a half (987-1328). 



242 GENERAL HISTORY 

Character of the Period. — This is one of the darkest periods 
in European history. It was a time of lawlessness and mis- 
rule, when there was no authority strong enough to repress 
violence and prevent private w^ar. Men found that their rulers 
could not protect them against w^rong. So they took the law 
into their own hands and redressed their wrongs themselves. 
The strong oppressed the weak, and society was distracted by 
continual feuds and outrages. Just as the empire of Charle- 
magne came to be divided into kingdoms, so these kingdoms 
split up into smaller fragments, and both in France and Ger- 
many the kings became more and more insignificant, till in 
point of power they were hardly to be distinguished from their 
great vassals. They could not reach the people except through 
the local rulers, and these local rulers often had no regard for 
the royal will. As a result, France and Germany became, not 
nations in the modern sense of the word, but loosely joined col- 
lections of little states, ■ — duchies, counties, principalities, — 
owning slight obedience to the central authority. 

Italy, too, was divided among many masters. The popes 
were trying to extend their power over the whole peninsula, 
and the German emperors w^ere trying to force the country 
into the empire ; but neither popes nor emperors were able to 
check the general tendency toward anarchy and subdivision. 
This division of power between the king and his lords, and be- 
tween the lords and his vassals, is the chief characteristic of 
what we call the Feudal System, which by the close of this 
period of the later Carolingians had established itself firmly in 
Europe. 

Growing Power of the Popes. — Yet in this breakdown of 
royal and imperial power the popes found an opportunity 
to extend their authority. They caused themselves to be re- 
garded as the spiritual heads of Europe, and even in political 
matters they steadily gained ground. No coronation of an 
emperor was valid unless performed by the pope, and by 
threat of spiritual punishment he was often able to bring 
princes to submission. 



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THE NORTHMEN 248 



SYNOPSIS FOR REViEW 

Europe under the Later Carolingiaxs. — The Later Carolingians : 
Incapacity of the Rulers. — Division of the Empire. — Louis tlie 
Pious: Louis crowned by the Pope. — Character of Louis. — Quar- 
rels with his Sons. — The Field of Lies : The Shares of Charles the 
Bald, Lothair, and Louis the German. — Battle of Fontenay : The 
Victory of Louis the German and Charles the Bald over Lothair at 
Fontenay, 8-il a.d. — Treaty of Verdun. The Shares of Lothair, 
Louis the German, and Charles the Bald. Importance of the Treaty 
of Verdun. — Lothair's Share : Its Division in 870. The Beginning 
of the Alsace-Lorraine Question. — The Carolingians in Germany : 
Charles the Fat crowned Emperor, 882. — The End of the Dynasty 
in Germany : Arnulf of Bavaria. Impossible to reunite the Empire. 
— State of Germany: Four Duchies. Growing Importance of the 
Dukes. — The Carolingians in France : Weakness of the Royal 
Power. — End of the Dynasty in France : The Capetian Dynasty. — 
Character of the Period : Confusion of the Times. Private Wars. 
France and Germany loosely joined Collections of Little States. 
Condition of Italy. — Growing Power of the Popes. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

THE NORTHMEN 

Who were the Northmen? — Early in the ninth century, while 
Cliarlemagne was still ruling, a strange race of pirates made 
their appearance on the coasts of what is now France. Their 
long, sharp-pointed boats sailed up the Trench rivers and put 
into shore just long enough to enable their crews to attack some 
unsuspecting village, kill the inhabitants, and reembark with 
the booty. They vanished as mysteriously as they came, and 
it seemed impossible either to guard against the attacks or to 
punish the invaders. Charlemagne appreciated the danger and 
tried to protect his frontier, but without permanent effect. The 
attacks continued, and after his death became more frequent, 



244 



GENERAL HISTORY 



till finally they resulted in the conquest and occupation of 
some of the best lands of his successors. 

These new invaders are known by the name of Northmen, 
from the fact that they came from Scandinavia and Denmark, 
the two northern peninsulas of western Europe. They were of 
pure German blood and knew nothing of Christianity or of 
the civilization of Rome ; so their migration in the ninth and 
tenth centuries was a new German invasion like that which we 




have described in treating of the period between 378 and 568. 
Those who staid at home built up the states which we know 
to-day as Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The others settled 
in France, England, Russia, and Iceland, in each case adding 
a most important element to the population and shaping the 
subsequent history of those countries. They also made inroads 
into Spain, and settled in Sicily, Italy, Ireland, Scotland, and 
many of the smaller islands off the British coast, but in these 
regions they left few permanent traces. Tliey were a rude, 



THE NORTHMEN 245 

vigorous race, delighting in war and adventure, and worshiping 
gods of the same savage and bloodthirsty character as them- 
selves. They were skillful seamen and were called Vikings, from 
the vicks, or bays, with which the Scandinavian coast abounds. 

I. The Kokthmen in France 

Inroads of the Northmen. — Since even Charlemagne could 
not defend his borders against these robbers, not much was to 
be expected of his weak successors. Early in the reign of 
Charles the Bald, who ruled over France on the division of the 
empire, the Northmen sailed up the Seine, burned the beauti- 
ful city of Eouen, and escaped unpunished. They soon came 
back and not only pillaged and murdered, but even exacted a 
tribute as the price of peace. This was several times repeated, 
the region north of the Seine and around Paris suffering the 
most. 

As the king could not defend them, the inhabitants of that 
territory had to look out for themselves, and Kobert the Strong 
became their champion against the invaders. The latter killed 
him in battle, but his son, Count Odo of Paris, took his place 
as the chieftain of the Franks, and when the Northmen laid 
siege to Paris in 885, he beat them back and saved the city. 
By this act he won for his family a respect which was not felt 
for the Carolingians, and laid the foundation of royal power ; 
for the descendants of this Odo were the Capetian kings who 
succeeded the Carolingians on the throne of France. 

Settlement of Normandy. — But the Northmen kept up their 
attacks, and finally their chief Hollo, or Kolf, secured from the 
French king, Charles the Simple, a grant of the land which 
was afterwards called Normandy. This was the Treaty of St. 
Clair-sur-Epte (911). By it Bollo agreed to do homage to the 
king and become the ^king's man,' in return for the lands which 
he had received. In other words, Rollo became Duke of the 
Northmen (now called Normans), and ruled over northern 
France as the feudal subject of the French king. But though 
Colby's gen. hist. — 16 



246 GENERAL HISTORY 

nominally subjects, the Norman dukes, successors of Kollo, be- 
came almost as powerful as the king himself, and their duchy 
of Normandy was one of the richest and strongest provinces 
of Prance. 

The invaders quickly adopted the language and customs of 
their new country, but they did not lose their natural vigor or 
warlike habits, and a century and a half after they had settled 
in France, we shall find a descendant of Eollo winning for 
himself the crown of England. 

II. England and the Northmen 

The Anglo-Saxon Kingdom. — The invasion of the island of 
Britain by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, in 449, has already 
been mentioned. We have noticed, too, that the war between 
these German invaders and the Eoman-Celtic natives was a 
war of extermination, and resulted in crowding the latter into 
the western part of the island. It took the Germans a century 
and a half to accomplish this result. 

When it was done, there followed a long period of warfare 
among the conquerors. First one and then another of the petty 
states into which England was divided would win for itself a 
sort of leadership over the rest, but there was no central gov- 
ernment or real unity. The details of the endless rivalries and 
wars between these half -barbarous peoples have not much in- 
terest for us. They have been compared to the ^'battles of 
kites and crows." This time is called the period of the Hep- 
tarchy (seven kingdoms, rule of seven) because during a part 
of the period there were seven of these little states. 

Synod of Whitby. — Yet there were certain influences that 
tended toward unity. In the first place, ever since the conver- 
sion of Kent by Augustine, in 596, the country had been under 
one ecclesiastical government, that of which the pope at Kome 
was the head. At one time it had looked as if the island might 
be divided in religion as well as in government ; for the Celtic 
Church, which differed in several re&pects from the Eoman, 



THE NORTHMEN 247 

had a strong hold in the north. Oswy, the king of the power- 
ful state of Northunibria, hesitated between the two forms of 
faith, but the matter was decided at the Synod of Whitby in 
664. There Oswy, on hearing that Christ had given the keys 
of heaven to Peter, and that the popes were Peter's successors, 
declared himself on the side of the Roman Catholic Church, 
lest when he came " to the gates of heaven, there should be 
none to open them." Unity in religious belief and in church 
government led to unity in political affairs. 

Attacks of the Northmen. — Another thing which tended to 
bring about the same result was the consciousness of common 
interests in the presence of a common enemy. This enemy 
was the Northman, who paid his first visit to the English 
coast in the year 787. From that time on, the ravages of the 
Northmen, or Danes, as they are called in English history, be- 
came frequent, and the Anglo-Saxons began to feel the need of 
combined action under a single leader in their own defense. 
Egbert, king of Wessex, was the first king of all England (827), 
and from this time the history of the English monarchy really 
begins. He was a strong ruler, and was followed by worthy 
successors who did good service against the Danes. But the 
attacks of the latter continued with increasing success until, at 
the beginning of the reign of Alfred, Egbert's grandson (871), 
they had all England north of the Thames. 

Alfred the Great and the Danes. — Alfred inherited a war 
rather than a kingdom; for the Danes attempted to seize 
even the country south of the Thames, so that he had to fight 
if he would retain a single foot of land to rule over. The 
manner in which he faced his enemies and finally triumphed 
over them, and the fine qualities he displayed as a ruler, have 
rightly earned for him the title of the Great. 

At first he had to buy off the Danes, for he had not force 
enongh in his little kingdom to resist them. Nor was he a 
match for them when they came back with larger numbers 
and renewed the war a few years later. He was defeated and 
hnnted like a runaway slave in his own country. On this 



248 GENERAL HISTORY 

occasion, according to the well-known story, he escaped in 
disguise, and found shelter in a peasant's hut, where the 
housewife set him to watching her cakes and scolded him 
when he absent-mindedly let them burn. But he raised a new 
army, and this time was successful. By the Treaty of Wed- 
more in 878, the Danes acknowledged his right to the western 
half of England and all the land south of the Thames. The 
eastern half north of the Thames remained with the Danes, 
and was called the Da'nelagh (Danelaw). Twice afterwards 
he came into conflict with these people, but on each occasion 
he was successful and toward the end of his reign his suprem- 
acy was acknowledged over almost all England. 

Character and Work of Alfred the Great. — It was as hard a 
task to restore order and prosperity to his kingdom as it had 
been to wrest it from the Danes ; for war had devastated the 
fields, ruined the towns, and demoralized the peojjle. Alfred's 
work of restoration was as wise as it was unwearied. He 
collected and revised the old laws, administering them with 
strictness, but with justice. The general lawlessness gave 
place to a wholesome respect for the king's peace, and it was 
said that a man could travel from one end of his dominions 
to the other without danger to his life or property. 

His best work was the education of his people. Seeing their 
need of books in their own language, he himself learned Latin 
and translated several important works into Anglo-Saxon ; so 
that he may be said to have really founded the native litera- 
ture. He began the Anglo-Saxon chronicle, one of the most 
valuable authorities on the history of the period, and he wrote 
the record of his own reign. In all this he had but one motive, 
— the welfare of his people, and he seems on this account to 
stand almost alone among the great rulers of the world ; for 
he regarded his office as a trust and himself as the servant of 
his people. He was England's best and greatest king. 

The Danish Conquest of England. — Alfred died in 901. His 
successors governed well, and the Danish inhabitants gradually 
settled down to peaceful occupations and mingled with the 



THE NORTHMEN 249 

natives. Under Edgar (959-975) the power of the kingdom 
reached its height. All Britain acknowledged the sway of 
this ruler, and, according to the story, the royal barge was 
rowed by eight vassal kings. 

But in 991 the Danes renewed their attacks, this time on a 
larger scale, and King Olaf of Norway and Swegen or Sweyn 
of Denmark each headed expeditions. Eth'elred the Bedeless 
(without counsel), the English king, was an incapable prince, 
and being unable to meet the Danes in fair fight, resorted to the 
cruel and cowardly plan of a general massacre of the Danish 
settlers (1002), killing the sister of King Swegen among the 
rest. Swegen retaliated by overrunning and plundering the 
country, and finally in 1013 made himself king of England 
in place of Ethelred, who was forced to flee to Normandy. 
Swegen died soon afterward, but the fight went on between 
his son, Cnut, or Canute, and Ethelred. Ethelred died in 1016, 
and his son, Edmund Ironsides, a braver and better ruler than 
his father, succeeded in keeping half of the kingdom, but he 
died a few months later, and left Canute master of all England. 

The Reign of Canute. — Canute ruled from 1016 to 1035. 
His empire covered a wider territory than any other state in 
Europe at that time, for it included Denmark, Sweden, Nor- 
way, and England. Though a foreigner, he ruled England 
wisely and well, dealing impartially with Danes and English- 
men, and doing his best to make them one people. In this he 
was successful ; for the Danes were of the same blood as the 
natives, and quickly fell into their ways and learned their 
language. 

Instead of governing like a conqueror, Canute seems actually 
to have loved England better than his native Denmark. He 
was a Christian, and ashamed of the cruelties of his heathen 
ancestors toward the English, as well as of his own doings when 
he was fighting for the English crown. He ruled as if he 
wished to make atonement. He was simple in his tastes, and 
cared little for royal show. There is a familiar story of his re- 
buking the flattery of his courtiers. He asked them if they 



250 GENERAL HISTORY 

thought the waves of the sea would stand still at his com- 
mand, and when they said they were sure of it, he tried the 
experiment in a very solemn manner in their presence. When 
it was clear that the waves paid no attention to the royal 
command, he gave the flatterers a wholesome little lecture on 
the feebleness of earthly kings as compared with the power of 
Heaven. 

Unfortunately for the English, his sons were men of a very 
different stamp. Harold (1035-40) and Hardicanute (1040-42) 
were bad rulers and roused the hatred of the English. The 
old Anglo-Saxon line was restored by the accession of Edward 
the Confessor, who ruled till within a few months of the Nor- 
man conquest (1042-66). 

III. Other Settlements by the Northmen 

The Northmen in Russia. — While bands of Northmen were 
plunderiiig the coasts of England and France, others were 
invading Russia. At first they held the lands just east of the 
Baltic, but gradually they advanced into the interior. In 862 
their chief, Ruric, established a kingdom with its capital at 
Novgorod. This was the beginning of the Russian Empire, for 
Ruric's successors in the direct line ruled for over 700 years. 
Thus the ruling people in Russia were of the German race, but 
these German Northmen were quick in adapting themselves 
to the manners and language of the Slavs and Finns of Russia, 
just as they were quickly transformed into Englishmen in Eng- 
land, and into Frenchmen in France. Many of the later comers 
from Scandinavia passed down the rivers of Russia and settled 
in Constantinople, where they became the bodyguard of the 
Eastern emperors, and served in their wars. These Varan'- 
gians, as they were called, were very brave and faithful de- 
fenders of the rulers at Constantinople. 

Norse Settlements in Iceland and the British Isles. — Sea rovers 
from Scandinavia settled in Iceland as early as 874. There 
they established a little Norse state, shut off by its remote 



THE NORTHMEN 251 

situation from European rivalries and wars, and preserving 
uncorrupted the original traditions of the race. The mediaeval 
literature of Iceland, especially the collections known as the 
Eddas, are the best sources we have for knowledge of the 
customs and character of the early Northmen. 

Norse tribes settled also in the Orkney Islands, the Heb'rides, 
and on the coast of Scotland and Ireland ; and they penetrated 
as far west as Greenland and America. In America it is 
doubtful whether they made any settlement, but it is believed 
that they visited the country early in the eleventh century, 
and the Vinland of which their writers speak has been identi- 
fied with a part of New England. 

Such, in brief, is the story of the migrations of the Northmen. 
It does not include their wanderings after they had become 
thoroughly nationalized in the countries in which they settled. 
We shall see that those who settled in France and had become 
to all appearances Frenchmen nevertheless kept their old 
adventure-loving spirit, and made more conquests. We shall 
encounter again these French Northmen or Normans when we 
come to trace the history of England and of Italy. 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Northmen. — Who were the Northmen ? Their Plundering Expe- 
ditions. Their Home. Countries settled by them. — Inroads of the 
Northmen : Their Attacks on England and France. Repulse by 
Count Odo of Paris. — Settlement of Normandy : The Northmen 
secure Normandy by Treaty, 911. Rollo. — Power of the Norman 
Dukes. — The Anglo-Saxon Kingdom: The War of Extermination. 

— Synod of Whitby : England becomes Roman Catholic. — Attacks 
of the Northmen : The Beginning of the English Monarchy. — Alfred 
the Great and the Danes : His Long Struggle with the Invaders, His 
Final Success. — Character and AVork of Alfred the Great: Wisdom 
of his Government. Justice. Prosperity. Security of the People. 

— The Danish Conquest of England : Power of Edgar, 959-975. The 
Expeditions of the Danes. King Swegen and Ethelred the Redeless. 
Edmund Ironsides. Canute becomes King of England. — The Reign 
of Canute (1016-1035) : His Wisdom and Impartiality. The Char- 



252 GENERAL HISTORY 

acter of his Successors. — The Northmen in Russia : Ruric estab- 
lishes a Kingdom at Novgorod, 862. The Varangian Guard. — Norse 
Settlements in Iceland and the British Isles : Icelandic Civilization. 
Settlements in the Orkney Islands, Hebrides, etc. The Norse Dis- 
covery of America. The Adaptability of the Northmen. 



CHAPTER XXXrV 

RISE OF THE MOHAMMEDAN POWER 

The Mohammedan Movement. — So far we have concerned our- 
selves chiefly with Christian nations or with races that eventually 
became Christian. We come now to the history of a new re- 
ligious movement, that of Mohammedanism or Islam (meaning 
submission) which disputed with Christianity the possession of 
the West, and at one time seemed on the point of mastering 
the whole of Europe. Like Christianity, it originated with a 
Semitic people, the Arabs, kinsmen of the Jews, but it differed 
from Christianity in the rapidity with which it spread. Founded 
by Mohammed early in the seventh century, it forced itself upon 
the peoples of central and western Asia and northern Africa 
before a hundred years had passed. In one century it acquired 
a far wider territory than Christianity had gained for itself in 
seven, and to-day its adherents number over a hundred mil- 
lions. 

The Arabs. — The Arabs are a branch of the Semitic race. 
Their original home, Arabia, is a table-land, barren for the 
most part, but with fertile regions here and there of consider- 
able extent. Before the time of Mohammed the Arabs were 
a semicivilized people without either a settled government or a 
fixed abode. Their religion was a mixture of superstitions, 
many of their religious notions being borrowed from other 
races with whom they came in contact ; for the great caravan 
route between Egypt and the East lay through Arabia, bringing 



RISE OF THE MOHAMMEDAN POWER 258 

numbers of foreign merchants into the country every year. 
The worship of the stars was observed among them, and they 
believed in genii, giants, and various kinds of demons. 

Their chief city was Mecca, famous as the seat of a temple 
called the Ka'aba, containing a holy stone which they thought 
had been sent from heaven by the angel Gabriel, and had 
originally been pure white, but had become blackened by tears 
shed by pilgrims for their sins. The guardianship of this sa- 
cred object was intrusted to a particular family called Ko'reish, 
who were thus the high priests of the Arab religion. 

Mohammed ; his Early Life. — Mohammed was a member of 
this family of the Koreish, the strongest and most orthodox 
upholders of the religion that he was destined to overthrow. 
He was born about 570, and, being left without support by the 
death of both his parents, was brought up by his uncle. The 
latter, however, was very poor and Mohammed had to work for 
his living at any humble occupation that offered itself, even 
such as was thought to be fit only for slaves. At last he was 
employed as camel driver by a rich widow named Kadi 'j ah, who 
after some years married him, thus raising him at once to a 
position of some importance. 

Early in his life he had shown himself very susceptible to 
religious impressions and he used often to retire to lonely places 
to pray. He seems to have had trances, — possibly of an epi- 
leptic origin, — in the course of which he thought he heard 
voices and saw visions. At first he thought that these were 
sent by evil spirits, but at last he came to believe that they 
were messages from God, calling him to testify to the truth of 
religion. In other words, he thought he was a prophet, whose 
mission it was to call men back to belief in God. At first he 
did not think that he was the apostle of a new faith, but merely 
that he was a prophet of the old. Later, however, he believed 
that he had received a special revelation and that he had learned 
new truths. He wrote down on bits of bone or stones the 
words of the being that appeared to him in his dreams, whom 
he took to be the angel Gabriel, and these scattered writings, 



254 GENERAL HISTORY 

afterwards gathered together, formed the Koran', the Bible of 
the Mohammedans. 

The Hegira (622 A.D). — It was hard to convince others of his 
divine mission, and conversion was a slow process. Only his 
wife and some of his relatives believed him at tirst. In three 
years he made but forty converts, and these were so persecuted 
and harassed by the orthodox people of Mecca, that it seemed 
as if the new faith must be crushed out. But Mohammed was 
very persistent and very sincere, and the faith he preached 
was better and purer than the old. His followers gradually 
increased till they formed quite a numerous body, but the feel- 
ing against them was so strong on account of Mohammed's 
attacks on the idols of the old religion that many ran away 
to the city of Medi'na, where the people were more tolerant. 
Finally Mohammed himself was driven out and took refuge in 
the same city in 622. This was the famous Heg'ira or Flight 
from Mecca to Medina, an event considered so important by 
the Mohammedans that they reckon their time from it just as 
Christians reckon theirs from the birth of Christ. 

Mohammed as a Conqueror. — After reaching Medina, where 
he was kindly received, Mohammed began to spread his reli- 
gion by the sword. It is said that his character entirely 
changed and that from being a peaceful prophet, he now be- 
came a merciless conqueror, saying, "The sword is the key of 
heaven and hell." The truth is, while he no longer relied on 
the slow method of peaceful conversion, he was more lenient 
in dealing with his enemies than one would expect from an 
Arab chief of that day. The Koran, tribute, or the sword was 
the choice offered them, and, in the case of Jews and Chris- 
tians, tribute was readily accepted. 

His first victory was at Badr or Bedr, where he defeated his 
old enemies, the people of Mecca, in 62-4. It was an insignifi- 
cant battle in respect to the numbers engaged, but important 
from the fact that the odds were so much against Mohammed 
that his victory seemed miraculous and many were led to believe 
in him as the true prophet. A few years later he captured 



RISE OF THE MOHAMMEDAN POWER 



255 



Mecca, and in the meanwhile his expeditions against the tribes 
in the interior had been ahnost invariably successful. In the 
ten years between the Hegira in 622 and his death in G32 he 
had made almost all the tribes of Arabia accept his new reli- 
gion, and had even written a letter to the Eastern emperor 
demanding that he, too, should become a convert. 

Mohammedanism. — The essence of Mohammed's faith is 
contained in the words, "There is but one God, Allah, and 
Mohammed is his prophet." He believed that God's word had 
been revealed to others be- 
sides himself, — that Abra- 
ham, Moses, Christ, each 
had a divine mission, — 
but Mohammed was the 
last and greatest prophet. 
The Koran clearly shows 
the influence of the Bible, 
as we should naturally 
expect from the associa- 
tion of the Arabs with the 
Jews and Christians, but 
it lays great stress on 
certain virtues and observ- 
ances. The duties of the 
Mohammedans are alms- 
giving, pilgrimages to 
Mecca, reciting three 
prayers daily, and fasting 

during the holy month of Ramadan'. Mohammed forbade 
them to drink wine or eat pork. They believed in a Paradise 
where everything was to be found that could gratify the senses, 
but the way to it was across the bridge of Al Sirat, which Avas 
as narrow as a dagger's edge. Only the soids of the blest could 
cross the bridge The others fell off and were lost forever. 

They believed that Allah, God, had determined all things 
beforehand, and ordained who should be saved and who should 




Interior of a Mosque 



256 GENERAL HISTORY 

be eternally punished. They expressed this idea by saying 
that Allah took two handfuls of earth, and threw one in one 
direction, saying, "These to heaven, and 1 care not," and 
another in another direction, saying, " These to hell, and I care 
not." A man could not, by his own act, lengthen or shorten 
his life by a single minute. Believing this, a Mohammedan 
could rush into battle with perfect fearlessness, for the term of 
his life was fixed by Allah. This accounts, in some measure, 
for the desperate bravery shown by the Moslems {i.e. believers) 
in their wars of conquest. 

Early Conquests. — The first caliph, or successor of the 
prophet, was Abu-bekr, the father-in-law of Mohammed ; but 
there was a considerable party who were disappointed because 
Mohammed's son-in-law, Ali, was not chosen. This disagree- 
ment led to a division, which has continued to our own time, 
between those who believed in All's claim and those who 
opposed it ; the former, called Shi'ahs, or Shi'ites, being repre- 
sented by the Persians to-day, while the Turks are Sun'nites, 
that is, opponents of Ali. 

Abu-bekr completed the conquest of Arabia, and then sent 
armies into Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, and the Persian 
Empire. Under his two successors, Omar and Othman, these 
conquests were made complete, and the new faith was carried 
eastward into central Asia, and westward into Egypt and along 
the northern coast of Africa. In less than forty years from 
the death of the prophet, his successors ruled the land from 
India in the east to Trip'oli in northern Africa in the west. 
They had destroyed the Persian Empire and robbed the Eoman 
emperor in the East of some of his richest provinces. To Chris- 
tians and Jews they gave the choice of tribute or the Koran. 
All others were forced on pain of death to accept the Koran. 

Both Omar and Othman were assassinated, and the sup- 
porters of Ali at last succeeded in raising him to the throne, 
but his reign was short and troubled. Rival claimants set 
themselves up, and finally Ali was assassinated. Thus ended 
the line of ^ orthodox ' caliphs, so called because they had all 



RISE OF THE MOHAMMEDAN POWER 257 

been related to or in some way associated with Mohammed. 
The rule now passed to the family of the Ommi'ads. 

The Peril of Europe. — The Ommiads made Damascus their 
capital, and ruled from 661 to 750. Under this dynasty the 
Mohammedan power threatened to overthrow Christendom. 
Europe was attacked from two quarters at once — from the 
east and from the west. 

In the east the Moslems tried to seize Constantinople, but 
after several desperate onslaughts between 668 and 675, and a 
renewed attack in 717, they gave up the attempt. In repelling 
their assailants, the inhabitants made use of Greek fire, an 
inflammable compound which ignited anything that it struck. 

In the west they first conquered northern Africa to the 
Atlantic Ocean. Only the narrow Straits of Gibraltar now 
separated them from Spain, which, as we have seen, had been 
the seat of a Visigothic kingdom since 415. A traitor in the 
service of Roderick, the last of the Visigothic kings, is said to 
have aided them in entering Spain. At all events, they landed 
without opposition and advanced into the interior, till at Jerez 
(ha'reth) de la Fronte'ra they found their way blocked by Rod- 
erick and his men. The battle of Jerez (711) decided the fate 
of Spain. The country was now in the hands of the Saracens. 

The next thing was to win the lands of the Franks. Cross- 
ing the Pyrenees, they soon had southern France in their 
power. How Charles Martel came to the rescue of Europe 
ar«d won the decisive battle of Tours (732) has already been 
told. Thenceforth they held but little land north of the 
Pyrenees. Their plan, had been to conquer the entire world. 
A glance at the map will show that their empire curved like 
their own emblem, the crescent, with one point near Constanti- 
nople, and the other at the Pyrenees. But for the repulse at 
Constantinople and the defeat at Tours, the two points might 
have been made to meet in the heart of Europe, and all Chris- 
tendom might have been brought under the Mohammedan 
power. 

Division of the Mohammedan Empire. — The Ommiads were 



258 



GENERAL HISTORY 



overthrown in 750 and a new family, the Abbas 'sids, came into 
power. One of the Ommiads, named Abderrah'man, escaped 
to Spain, where his rule was acknowledged. The Abbassicls 
moved the capital to Bagxlad, but by transferring the seat of 
their power to the East, they gradually lost control of the 
w^estern part of their dominions. The Saracens, or Moors, in 
Spain became independent, and in 909 another independent 
Mohammedan power was founded in northern Africa by the 
Fat'imites or descendants of Fatima, the daughter of Moham- 
med. Thus at the close of the tenth century, there were three 
great divisions of the Mohammedan Empire : first, the Abbas- 
sid Caliphate, with its capital at Bagdad ; second, the Spanish 
Caliphate, with its capital at Cor'dova; and third, the Fatimite 
Caliphate, with its capital at Cairo. 

The Moors in Spain. — The term ' Moors ' is applied to those 

Arab tribes that settled 
in northern Africa and 
Spain. They held Spain 
for over 750 years, but 
they never got possession 
of the entire country. 
Fragments of the Visi- 
gothic kingdoms still re- 
mained, and these little 
Christian kingdoms in the 
north were destined to 
grow into a power strong 
enough to master the 
whole peninsula. But all 
through the Middle Ages 
Spain was the seat of a 
Mohammedan civilization. 
In most respects it was a 
higher civilization than 
that of the neighboring Christian states, for the Arabs were 
great students of philosophy and science, and in the arts, 




Moorish Gatk. Toledo 



RISE OF THE MOHAMMEDAN POWER 259 

especially in the art of building, tliey led all Europe. In the 
tenth century their power reached its height, but in the 
eleventh century, after fresh invasions by more barbarous 
tribes from Africa, it gradually declined. It was not till the 
reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, however, that the last vestige 
of the Moorish power was destroyed (1492). 

The Caliphate of Bagdad. — Although they lost control over 
the West, the Abbassid caliphs possessed great power. Bag- 
dad became for a time the most splendid city of the world. 
The ' golden age ' of the Caliphate was the early part of the 
ninth century. This was the time of the great Haroun'-al- 
Rasch'id, who is mentioned in the Arabian Nights. Many 
stories are told of his vast wealth and the magnificence of his 
court. 

But not long after his death, the Caliphate began to split up 
into nearly independent states, and at the same time the Turks 
began to invade its provinces. The caliphs hired the Turks 
to defend them, establishing a standing army which, like the 
Praetorian Guard of the Roman Empire, became the real power 
in the state. In 1058 the caliph gave his authority to the Turk- 
ish conqueror, Togrul Beg, and thenceforth the caliph was 
merely a religious officer, while all political power was in the 
hands of the Turkish sultan. 

Conclusion. — Such were the principal events in the early 
period of the Moslem power. Spain was lost to Christendom, 
but Europe was spared. The Eastern Empire was still standing, 
but Africa, Egypt, and its eastern provinces were in the hands 
of the Moslems. The danger of Mohammedan conquest was 
averted, and did not reappear till the fifteenth century. We 
shall then find that the Mohammedan aggressors were no 
longer the Semitic Arabs, but a Turanian people whom the 
Arabs had converted. It was the Turks that finally captured 
Constantinople in 1453 and again threatened Christian Europe 
with Mohammedan conquest. In the meanwhile, however. 
Christian Europe had been the aggressor in the series of wars 
known as the Crusades. 



260 GENERAL HISTORY 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Rise of the Mohammedan Power. — The Mohammedan Movement: 
Its Semitic Origin. Rapidity of its Progress. — The Arabs : Their 
Country. Their Civilization and Religion. Mecca. The Family of 
the Koreish. — Mohammed ; his Early Life : His Early Poverty. His 
Marriage. His Visions. The Beginning of the Koran. — The He- 
gira, 622 a.d, : Slowness of the Conversions. Mohammed driven 
from Mecca. — Mohammed as a Conqueror : His First Victory. Its 
Importance. — Mohammedanism : The Essence of the Mohammedan 
Faith. The Mohammedan Paradise. Fate. — Early Conquests : 
Abu-bekr. Conquest of Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, and 
the Persian Empire. Omar and Othman. Their Conquest. The 
Assassination of Ali. — The Peril of Europe : The Dynasty of Om- 
miads, 6G1-750. Rapid Spread of Mohammedanism. Attacks on 
Constantinople. Conquest of Spain. Invasion of Gaul. The Bat- 
tle of Tours, 732. — Division of the Mohammedan Empire : The Rise 
of the Abbassids. Capital at Bagdad. The Caliphate of Cordova. 
The Fatimite Caliphate. — The Moors in Spain : Cl>aracter of their 
Civilization. The Height of their Power. — The Caliphate of Bag- 
dad: The 'Golden Age' of the Caliphate. Its Decline. — Conclu- 



CHAPTER XXXV 

THE CRUSADES 

Nature and Causes of the Crusades. — The crusades were the 
attempts of the Christian nations to rescue the Holy Land from 
the Mohammedans or "infidels." They fall within a period 
of two centuries, the first beginning in 1096, and the last 
coming to an end in 1270. The first and immediate cause of 
these expeditions was the occupation of the Holy Land by the 
Seljuks', a Turkish tribe from Western Asia, who, in 1058, had 
overrun Syria and Asia Minor, making Nicaea their capital. 
Syria had previously been held by the Arabs ; for, as we have 
seen, it was one of the earliest conquests of the Mohamme- 



THE CRUSADES 



261 



dans. Under Arab rule, however, the Christians were generally 
treated with some toleration. 

Treatment of Pilgrims. — It had long been the practice of ^oious 
Christians to make pilgrimages to the holy places, the scenes of 
the Saviour's life and sufferings, and about the beginning of the 
eleventh century the number of the pilgrims greatly increased. 
They were subjected to many restrictions, and regarded Avith 
contempt by the Arabs, but they were not as a rule ill used. 

The Seljuk conquerors of Syria, liowever, adopted a different 
policy. They, too, were Mohammedans, but they were far more 
savage and intolerant than the Arabs. They treated the pil- 
grims with cruelty, and outraged Christendom by their dese- 
cration of the holy places. 

The Religious Sentiment. — The eleventh century was a period 
of deep religious feeling ; the power of the Church was on the 







'"V 

ERTHE C 



MEDiTEKUANEI 
LA? 

AFTER 

Fourth Cms 1 1 "^V 
1204 

SCALE OF M LES 



I6U ZliU 3UU 400 



-^^-LJ_^ W f 




increase, and the papal chair was successively occupied by able 
and sincere men, bent on strengthening the influence of the 
Holy See. It was represented that God and his saints were 
offended by these insults to the true faith ; and the tales of 
wrong and cruelty brought back by the pilgrims added motives 
of hatred and revenge to the natural desire of the Christians 
to save Palestine from the enemies of Christ. 
Colby's (ii;x. hist. — 1 7 



262 GENERAL HISTORY 

Suchj in the first instance, were the causes of the crusades. 
The main impulse was religious zeal, and selfish and worldly 
motives did not at first control them ; but in the course of 
time the movements lost much of their original character. 
Greed, policy, and the desire for adventure deprived them of 
the appearance of holy wars. 

The Beginning of the First Crusade. — The emperor of the 
East, Alex'ins I., found his empire threatened by the Turks, 
and applied to Pope Gregory VII. for aid. None came, be- 
cause the pope was then in the midst of his struggle with the 
German emperor ; but under Pope Urban 11. the matter was 
revived. This pope was the real author of the first crusade. 
He did not advocate it on the ground that the Eastern Empire 
was in danger, for the people of western Enrope cared nothing 
for the Eastern emperor; but he appealed directly to the 
religious sentiment of the people and brought to bear on them 
the full weight of the authority of the Church. 

Council of Clermont. — He assembled in France the famous 
Council of Clermont, in 1095, and there, in the presence of an 
immense throng, made a powerful plea for the undertaking of 
a holy war. He declared that the cause was the cause of God 
himself, who would not allow labor on his behalf without 
due reward. The man who perished in this pious service was 
sure of Paradise. If he lived, he would march to victory and 
reap a rich reward in the plunder of his enemies. Moreover, 
it was believed that service against the enemies of Christ 
washed away the stains of guilt. When he finished, the mul- 
titude shouted, '' It is the will of God ! " The cross was 
chosen as the badge of the movement, which from this circum- 
stance received the name of Crnsade. 

Peter the Hermit. — The efforts of Urban II. were aided by 
an eloquent and earnest monk, known as Peter the Hermit. 
After the Council of Clermont he traveled through Italy and 
Prance, drawing crowds to hear him whenever he spoke. He 
pictured the sufferings of the Christians and the insolence of 
the Turks, appealing now to the pity, and now to the passions 



THE CRUSADES 263 

of the listeners. The excitement was intense. Thousands took 
the cross and stood ready to follow him to the Holy Land. 

The Crusaders. — There were two classes of the crusaders. 
First there were those who were carried away by mere blind 
fanaticism, and believed that they would gain their ends by 
the favor of God, without regard to the nature of the means 
employed. They gathered in ill-disciplined and unorganized 
bands, around any leader who happened to take their fancy, 
and started pellmell for the Holy Land, without adequate 
supplies or effective guidance. The largest body of this sort 
was the rabble that followed Peter the Hermit, who, whatever 
his abilities as a preacher, was quite unfit for military leader- 
ship. Another motley crowd joined the standard of Walter 
the Penniless, a knight with more pretensions to military skill 
than Peter, but utterly unable to control his disorderly fol- 
lowers. Similar bands were got together by other leaders. 

The other class of the crusaders consisted of the chivalrous 
armies of France and Italy, led by prominent feudal lords, 
such as Godfrey de Bou'illon, Duke of Lorraine, Eobert ot 
Normandy, son of William I. of England, and Raymond of 
Toulouse', from France, and Boemund of Otranto and his 
cousin Tancred, from Italy. Though a volunteer force and 
lacking the efficiency of a modern army, it was better disci- 
plined and better led than the loose masses just described. It 
should be noted, ho\fever, that the troops were merely personal 
followers of their chiefs. No king took part in the first cru- 
sade, and there was nothing to hold the different bodies to- 
gether except their enthusiasm in a common cause. 

The Fate of the Vanguard. — The band led by Walter the 
Penniless grew tired of waiting for the others and started first, 
passing through Hungary and Bulgaria and reaching Constan- 
tinople in the summer of 1096. Their lawlessness on the way 
provoked the natives of the countries through which they 
passed, and many of the band were slain. Peter the Hermit's 
band soon followed and passed through the same experience, 
losing an even larger number on the way. 



264 GENERAL IIISTOIIY 

Reaching Constantinople, the two forces joined, and being 
permitted by Alexius to cross into Asia Minor advanced to 
the vicinity of Nicaea, where they paused, not daring to go on 
till reinforcements came. But it was impossible to keep them 
in order. They scattered throughout the plains in search of 
food, paying no attention to the commands of their leaders. 
At last they were attacked by the Seljuks and cut to pieces. 

The Main Body. — The divisions of the main army passed 
over to Asia Elinor by three different routes. The number of 
the whole force is said to have been 700,000, but this is doubt- 
less exaggerated. When they reached Constantinople, they 
had trouble with the emperor Alexius, who, while he hated 
the Turks, had no desire to see Syria fall into the hands of 
the crusaders. Syria had formerly been a province of the 
Eastern Empire, and it was the ambition of Alexius to regain 
it. He was perfectly willing that the crusaders should do 
the lighting, but their conquests, he held, should belong to 
him. Accordingly he required the Christian princes to take 
an oath acknowledging themselves to be his vassals. Godfrey 
de Bouillon refused to do this, but the emperor attacked the 
crusaders and finally Godfrey consented. 

Capture of Nicaea. — The first important action of the cru- 
saders was the siege of the Turkish capital, Nicaea. They had 
reached that city in May, 1097. The Turks, having defeated 
the first band of crusaders so easily, thought there was no 
need of hastening to its assistance. The siege was conducted 
in an irregular manner, each division of the attacking force 
(tarrying out its plans in its own way. Nevertheless the cru- 
saders were successful and the inhabitants Avere on the point 
of surrendering, when the emperor Alexius, by a secret ar- 
rangement w^ith them, was admitted with his troops within the 
walls. The city surrendered to him instead of the crusaders, 
who were thus cheated of their spoils. 

Siege of Antioch. — Another important siege was that of 
Antioch. This city was the key to all Syria, and its capture 
was a work of great difficulty. It finally fell into the hands of 



THE CRUSADES 



2(35 



the crusaders through the treachery of one of the garrison, but 
now it was harder to keep it than it liad been to take it ; for 
fresh Turkish forces arrived and the Christians were in turn 
besieged. They were outnumbered, and as fast as tlieir assail- 
ants were killed off, reinforcements came to take their places. 

At last the besieged put forth all their strength in a desper- 
ate sally. They were nerved to it by a supposed miracle — the 
finding of the lance which had pierced the side of the Saviour, 
which, it was said, would insure their victory. It was a pious 
fraud to rouse them to enthusiasm, but it succeeded. The 
Turks were scattered, and Antioch came into the possession of 
the Christians. This time they determined to keep it in their 
own right. They did not permit the emperor to gain it. 

Capture of Jerusalem. — The crusaders now advanced on 
Jerusalem, which they found was defended by a strong force. 
Its capture was an easier matter than the taking of Antioch. 
The defenders were unable to hold out against the fierce at- 
tacks of the besiegers, and the city was soon in the hands of 
the Christians. The conquerors showed little of the spirit of 
Christianity in their moment of triumph. The Mohammedans 
were butchered without mercy. The capture of Jerusalem was 
the crowning success of the first crusade. The object for 
which the movement was undertaken was now gained. 

The Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099) . — The conquered lands were 
now formed into a little 
feudal kingdom, the head 
of which at first was God- 
frey de Bouillon. He would 
not, however, accept the 
title of king, preferring to 
be called Defender of the 
Holy Sepulcher. 

Battle of Ascalon. — But 
another great battle had to 

be fought before the crusaders were securely established in 
possession. The Mohammedans of Egypt, who were hostile to 




iiiiiiii|iwiiiiiiiiii^iiiiiiiw|iiii£ii|ij_ 

Tomb of Godfrey de Bouillon 



266 GENERAL HISTORY 

Christians and Turks alike, had conquered part of Syria. In 
fact, it was they and no longer the Turks who held Jerusalem 
at the time of its capture. These new enemies, in numbers far 
stronger than the Christians, attacked the latter at As'calon, but 
the Christians put them to rout, capturing and plundering their 
camp. After this success many of the crusaders returned 
home. 

Results of the First Crusade. — Of all the crusades this one 
was the most successful. The Holy Land had been rescued 
from the unbelievers and turned into a Christian state. In the 
AVest, the news was received with the utmost enthusiasm and 
people did not consider the sacrifice which the success had 
cost. It is impossible to estimate the loss of life among the 
crusaders. It is said that 300,000 perished in the ill-fated 
expeditions of Walter the Penniless, Peter the Hermit, and 
the other leaders of the vanguard ; and of the main body only 
a small portion ever returned. 

The success purchased at such a price was not destined to 
be lasting. The so-called Kingdom of Jerusalem had all the 
defects of the feudal states of Europe. It was without unity, 
and therefore without strength. 

The Second Crusade (1147-49). — The cause of the second 
crusade was the loss of the Christian stronghold of Edessa — 
a loss which seemed to threaten the destruction of the King- 
dom of Jerusalem itself. For some years after the first 
crusade the newly established kingdom had seemed to thrive. 
New colonies were planted, and it gained in extent and popula- 
tion. But the complicated and cumbersome feudal government 
was ill adapted to its surroundings. A strong centralized 
system, with one vigorous ruler at the head, was what was 
needed in the midst of a hostile country. 

When Europe heard of the fall of Edessa, the alarm was 
great; for it seemed as if what had been gained with such 
enormous sacrifice would all be lost. The preacher of the 
second crusade was St. Bernard of Clairvaux, who, like 
Peter the Hermit, was a man of intense earnestness and 



THE CRUSADES 



26' 



wonderful eloquence. Unlike Peter, however, he succeeded 
in winning over kings as well as common people. Louis VII., 
king of France, and Conrad III., emperor of Germany, were 
the leaders of the second crusade. 

Military and Religious Orders. — ^l^etween the first and 
second crusades two peculiar military and religious orders 
were established. These were the Knights Hospitalers, or 
Knights of St. John, and the Knights Templars. 

The Knights of St. John were organized originally to care 
for the sick and wounded among the crusaders and pilgrims 
to Jerusalem. They took the usual vows of monks, but to these 
were added vows of military ser- 
vice. They had thus a combined 
religious and military character, 
being fighting men as well as 
monks. 

The Knights Templars were or- 
ganized on a similar plan, but their 
original purpose had been to pro- 
tect the pilgrims to the Holy Land. 

At a later date there was another 
of these orders established under 
the name of the Teutonic Knights. 
All three played an important part 
in the crusades, and they continued 
to exist long after the crusades 
were over. 

Failure of the Second Crusade. — Both the French king and 
the German emperor had large and well-equipped armies, but 
each worked independently of the other. The Germans reached 
Constantinople first, and tried to obtain aid from the Eastern 
emperor Manuel. But he was anxious to be rid of them as soon 
as possible. He promised them aid and hurried them on ; 
then he did all he could to put obstacles in their way. The 
whole German army was cut to pieces in Asia Minor, and only 
the emperor with a few followers escaped. 




A Knight Temflak 



268 GENERAL HISTORY 

Louis' army caine soon afterwards and had the same experi- 
ence of Manuel's treachery. They succeeded in capturing 
some towns and penetrated further into the interior than the 
German army, but in the end they, too, were destroyed by the 
Turks. The king escaped and returned to France. The cru- 
sade had accomplished absolutely nothing. 

Fall of Jerusalem. — -Forty years followed before the Chris- 
tians made another attempt to restore the failing power of the 
little kingdom. In tliis interval a new and powerful foe arose 
in the south. This was Sal'adiu, the Mohammedan governor 
of Egypt, a man of unusual talent both in military affairs and 
diplomacy, who succeeded in extending his rule over the Mo- 
hammedan population of Syria. This brought him into contact 
with the Christians, and war soon followed. Saladin was suc- 
cessful, routing the Christian forces at Tiberias. Jerusalem 
now fell into his hands. 

The Leaders. — There was no need of an eloquent monk to 
preach the duty of the third crusade. All Europe was bent on 
repairing the loss of Jerusalem ; and it so happened that on 
the thrones of the principal kingdoms were men of energy and 
warlike tastes. The leaders of the third crusade were the three 
most powerful sovereigns in Europe ; namely, Frederick Bar- 
barossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and Eichard 
I. (the Lion-Hearted) of England. 

Events of the Third Crusade (1189-92). — Here, again, the 
fatal weakness of the movement was the lack of coopera- 
tion among its leaders. The German force had almost the 
same experience as the army of Conrad in the previous expe- 
dition. It was deceived by the Greeks, lost its way in Asia 
Minor, and was cut down before reaching Syria. Frederick 
Barbarossa was drowned while trying to cross a swollen 
stream. 

Siege of Acre. — The French and English forces, under their 
respective kings, reached the Holy Land and laid siege to the 
city of Acre. The city finally surrendered, but in the mean- 
while the crusaders were divided by jealousies. Philip Angus- 



THE CRUSADES 269 

tus and Richard were constantly quarreling, and finally Philip 
gave up the war in disgust and returned to France. 

Close of the Third Crusade. — Richard and Saladin were now the 
chief contestants, and the war continued with varying success. 
Great valor was shown on both sides, and Richard especially won 
fame by his brave exploits. His deeds made him a hero of medi- 
aeval romance ; but though brave, he was selfish, cruel, and un- 
wise, and far inferior to Saladin in generosity. At last a truce 
was made, leaving Jerusalem in the hands of Saladin, who, how- 
ever, granted to Christian pilgrims admittance to the holy places. 

On his return home, Richard had to pass through Austria, 
whose duke he had offended by his rash and arrogant conduct 
during the crusade. He had also angered the German emperor 
Henry VI. His enemies took vengeance on him by throwing 
him into prison and refusing to deliver him except on pay- 
ment of a ransom. The money was finally raised from Rich- 
ard's English subjects, and he returned to England. 

The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204). — The peculiar feature of 
the fourth crusade is that it was diverted wholly from its origi- 
nal purpose and became an expedition against a Christian 
power. By this time it had become clear that the safest way 
to reach Palestine was by sea. Accordingly, when a new cru- 
sading movement was set on foot in France, it was decided to 
hire the great maritime city of Venice to carry the army to 
its destination. Only the minor princes took part in this cru- 
sade, and the most famous of these were Bon'iface II., Marquis 
of Montferrat, and Baldwin IV., Count of Flanders. 

When the Venetians were asked to transport the crusaders, 
they demanded an enormous price for the service. Not hav- 
ing the requisite money, the crusaders agreed to pay the 
Venetians by helping them against their enemies. The first 
service that the Venetians demanded was the capture of 
Zara, a city on the eastern coast of the Adriatic, and the 
headquarters of pirates. The crusaders now began to think 
that they would do the cause of Christ more service if, instead 
of going to the Holy Land, they attacked Constantinople. The 



270 



GENERAL HISTORY 



conduct of the Eastern emperors during the previous crusades 
seemed to call for vengeance, and there was tempting prospect 
of unlimited plunder if the expedition should succeed. 

Capture of Constantinople. — The crusaders listened to the 
advice of the Venetians, and set sail for Constantinople. One 
of the things that had influenced them was the fact that there 
was a contest for the throne in the East or Greek empire at 
this time, and the unsuccessful claimant promised a rich re- 
ward to the crusaders if they would aid him in recovering his 
throne. The city was easily captured by the crusaders, but 




Crusaders 



the price that had been promised was not paid, and the war 
was renewed, with the result that Constantinople fell into the 
hands of the Western Christians. 

Latin Empire. — The conquerors divided the spoils among 
them, and a new Latin kingdom was set up with Baldwin of 
Flanders at the head. Venice received a large part of what 
had been the Eastern Empire, her ruler taking as his offi- 
cial title Doge of Venice and Euler of Three Eighths of the 
Eoman Empire. Venice did not actually hold as large a share 
of the empire as this, but she profited from the conquest to a 
greater extent than the crusaders themselves ; for it opened up 



THE CRUSADES 271 

trade to her and gave lier the control of the eastern end of the 
Mediterranean Sea. The new kingdom established on the 
ruins of the Eastern Empire was not destined to last long; for 
it was weakened by disunion and lacked sufficient money and 
means to establish itself firmly. It lasted until 1261, when 
the Greeks regained control. 

The Children's Crusade. — One of the most singular instances 
of the blind faith which ruled men in the Middle Ages was 
the attempt to regain the Holy Land by armies of children. In 
1212 a lad named Stephen of Cloyes preached a new crusade. 
In it only children were to take part, and thousands of boys 
and girls started for the Holy Land. One band reached 
Marseilles, whence they set sail in vessels provided by mer- 
chants, but were either lost by shipwreck or sold as slaves to 
the Mohammedans. Another party started from Gerniany, it 
is said, and after many hardships reached the Italian port of 
Erin'disi, but they were not allowed to take ship for the Holy 
Land and were sent back home. Some went to Rome, but the 
pope ordered them back to their homes. 

Crusade of Frederick II. — Between 1217 and 1230 several 
attempts were made to recover the Holy Land, and on one 
occasion when the 

fortress of Damiet'ta ? 

was captured in 
Egypt, there seemed 
to be a chance of 

bargaining with the ,.:L ,^'—:";'^;1'^^^^^^^^~^£^ 

infidels for the holy ^^^^|fPf5^fl'nr;ufl^^^ 
places. But the fa- ^^Jj^ffEOT^^ 4 1 
naticism of the times ~'^^''^'"~'^~--V""^-'^§^s?^, 
prevented this ra- ^^ -^" SS^^^ 





tional course, and the '^ "' ' 

war was continued mosque of Omab 

with results unfavor- 
able to the Christians. More important was the crusade 
of Erederiek II., the German emperor, who, after putting 



272 GENERAL HISTORY 

off his journey for various reasons, set out for tlie Holy Land 
in 1228. Frederick was the first crusader to show common 
sense and foresight in dealing with the Turks. He thought it 
good policy to take advantage of divisions among the Moham- 
medans and gain his ends without fighting ; and in this he 
succeeded, for in 1229 Jerusalem was surrendered to the Chris- 
tians, the only reservation being that the Mosque of Omar 
should be kept by the Mohammedans. Frederick crowned 
himself king of Jerusalem and returned to Europe, having 
regained for the Christians not only Jerusalem and the holy 
places, but a considerable extent of territory. 

Crusades of Louis IX. — In 1244 Jerusalem was again taken 
by the infidels, but four years later Christendom found a cham- 
pion in Louis IX. of France, a man of great ability and intense 
religious feeling. The first of his crusades was directed 
against Egypt, where he captured the city of Damietta and 
made an expedition into the interior ; but in the course of his 
retreat he and his entire army fell into the hands of the enemy, 
and he was set free only on the payment of an excessive ran- 
som and the surrender of Damietta. He then went to Syria, 
and spent several years in an attempt to restore the power of 
the Christians, biit failed in the end and returned to France in 
1254. He made another effort to conquer the Holy Land in 
1270. In this year he again tried to break the power of the 
Mohammedans by an attack on Egypt. Accordingly the city 
of Tunis was besieged, but the attempt failed and Louis died 
of the plague in the summer of 1270. An English prince, who 
afterwards came to the throne of England under the title of 
Edward I., went on and invaded Syria, but accomplished little. 

The Christian power in the Holy Land was now failing, 
and after the capture of Acre in 1291, the Christians were 
driven out, and Syria passed permanently under the control of 
the Mohammedans. Thus all these great expeditions, with their 
enormous sacrifice of life and money, had failed in the object 
for which they were intended. Almost the only lands retained 
by the Christians in the East were the islands of Rhodes and 



THE CRUSADES 273 

Cyprus, which were hekl for many years by the Knights of 
St. John. 

The Effects of the Crusades. — The crusades came to an end 
partly on account of the exhaustion of Europe and partly on 
account of a change in the spirit of the times. The effects of 
the crusades were both good and evil. 

Among the evil effects may be mentioned the fact that they 
stimulated the persecuting spirit; for if it was right to use 
force against infidels, it was natural to suppose that heretics 
also should be compelled by violence to accept the true faith. 

Another effect of the crusades was the weakening of the 
feudal system ; for they diminished the number of the nobles, 
who in many instances sold their lands and their rights in 
order to obtain money for the expedition. By weakening the 
nobility, they increased to some extent the power of the king 
and of the common people. The crusades did much to increase 
the power of the Church and the papacy ; for a crusader on 
starting out often intrusted his property to the Church, which, 
if he did not return, became so much the richer. 

Commerce and Learning. — Among the most important of 
their good effects were the stimulation of commerce and the 
spread of learning. They opened the East to trade and the 
products of Asia were introduced into Europe. The knowl- 
edge of geography was of course increased by these expedi- 
tions, and, as the Arabs were in advance of the Christians in 
scientific learning, Europe profited from contact with them. 
In fact, the crusades did much to bring about the revival of 
learning in the West. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Crusades. —Nature and Causes of the Crusades : The Period of the 
Crusades, 1096-1270. The Seljuks in the Holy Land. —Treatment of 
Pilgrims : Cruelty toward the Christian Pilgrims to the Holy Land. 
— The Religious Sentiment : Great Influence of the Church. Deep 
lleligious Feeling. —The Beginning of the First Crusade : Appeals of 
the Eastern Emperor. Pope PTrban II. — Council of Clermont: Ap- 
peal of Pope Urban 11. The Name Crusade. — Peter the Hermit : 



274 GENERAL HISTORY 

Effect of his Preaching. — The Crusaders : Fanaticism of the People. 
The Followers of Peter the Hermit. The Band under Walter the 
Penniless. The Armies of the Feudal Lords. — The Fate of the Van- 
guard : Losses on the way to the Holy Land. Their Destruction near 
Mcaea.— The Crusaders deceived by the Emperor. — Siege of Anti- 
och : The Capture of Antioch. Difficulty of holding it. — Capture 
of Jerusalem: The Cruelty of the Crusaders. —The Kingdom of 
Jerusalem : Godfrey de Bouillon. Defender of the Holy Sepulcher. 

— Battle of Ascalon : The Victory of the Christians over Superior 
Numbers. — Results of the First Crusade: Influences throughout 
Christendom. Great Loss of Life. Defects of the Little Kingdom. 

— The Second Crusade (1147-11-40 i : The Loss of Edessa a Danger 
to Jerusalem. St. Bernard of Clairvaux. The Leaders. — Military 
and Religious Orders : The Knights of St. John. The Knights Tem- 
plars. The Teutonic Knights. — Failure of the Second Crusade : 
The German xVrmy. Its Fate. The French. The French King's 
Failure. — Fall of Jerusalem: Saladin. His Victory at Tiberias. — 
The Leaders. -^Events of the Third Crusade (1189-1192) : Lack of 
Cooperation. The Disaster that befell the German Forces. — Siege 
of Acre : Philip Augustus and Richard. — Close of the Third Cru- 
sade : Concessions to the Christians. Richard's Return Home. — The 
Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) : Peculiarity of the Fourth Crusade. Its 
Leaders. The Capture of Zara. The Attack on Constantinople. — 
Capture of Constantinople. — Latin Empire : The Division of the 
Spoils. The Share of Venice. Duration of the New Kingdom. — 
The Children's Crusade: French Expedition under Stephen of 
Cloyes. — Crusade of Frederick II. : Other Crusading Movements. 
Frederick's Capture of Jerusalem. — Crusades of Louis IX. : Jerusa- 
lem captured by the Infidels. Louis IX. 's Attempt to regain it. 
His Capture of Damietta and its Subsequent Surrender. Louis's 
Second Attempt to conquer the Holy Land. Its Failure. Expulsion 
of the Christians from the Holy Land. — The Effects of the Crusades : 
The Persecuting Spirit. The Power of the Church and the Papacy. 
The Weakening of the Feudal System. — Commerce and Learning. 



CHAPTER XXXVI 



SOCIETY IN THE MIDDLE AGES 



I. Feudalism 




I 



Definition of Feudalism. — Feudalism is a social system in 
which the ownership of land is the basis of authority. At 
the present time in the most civilized countries 
the tenant on any man's estate owes him no 
duties save the payment of a money rent. He 
is free to go and come as he likes, and can 
give up his holding as soon as the lease expires. 
In the Middle Ages the right to hold land and 
cultivate it was accompanied by certain duties 
on the x:>art of the holder to the person from 
whom the land was held. The latter had to 
some extent a political control over his tenant. 
He was called the suzerain, liege, or lord, and 
the person who Avas allowed to occupy the 
estate was called the vassal, liegeman, or re- 
tainer. The estate itself was known as a 
fief. 

The Origin of Feudalism. — It is very difficult to trace the 
origin of this social system, and among historical scholars 
almost every point in its early development has been a subject 
of dispute. It is certain, however, that it resulted from the 
fusion of the German invaders with the native Roman popu- 
lation. When the German tribes crossed the frontiers and 
settled on Roman land, the conquered country was divided 
as plunder among the invaders. Every free German acquired 
a small parcel of land in his own right, and this was known as 
an allod. The only duty which the owner of this land owed 
to the state was military service. 

Besides these allodial lands, or freeholds, however, there 
were other tracts which were held on a different principle. 

275 



A Court Jester 



276 GENERAL HISTORY 

The early Middle Ages were a period of constant warfare, and 
almost the only way in which a king could attach a lighting man 
to himself was by bestowing on him a piece of land as the price 
of his service. In conquering a coimtry, the king of course 
acquired the largest share, and from this share he often granted 
to his personal followers and faithful courtiers certain tracts, 
on condition that they should continue to stand by him. Such 
a gift of land was termed a feudal grant, the land itself being 
Si fend OYjief. In the first place, the gift was merely for life, 
but in the course of time it became hereditary. If the son 
inherited the fief, however, it was understood that he was to 
continue rendering his lord the services which his father had 
been obliged to render. 

In many cases the land was obtained not by grant from 
the lord, but by usurpation. A man who had been set over 
a certain district as its governor often succeeded in gaining 
a sort of ownership and in making the land hereditary in 
his family. Thus from being a mere agent of the king, he 
became the king's vassal and the feudal lord over this district. 
Another way in which the fiefs arose was by the voluntary 
surrender of freeholds or allodial estates in order that they 
might be received back as fiefs. This was to secure the 
protection which, in a period of violence, some more powerfid 
person could render. The free man thus became a vassal for 
the sake of his own security. 

Subinfeudation. — Just as the king granted out parcels of 
land to his followers in return for feudal service, so the king's 
vassals granted out portions of land which they held from him. 
This process was called subinfeudation, and resulted in making 
successive grades of landholders, each the vassal of the man 
from whom he held the land, and the suzerain of the man who 
held from him. A man's allegiance, therefore, was not due 
directly to the king, but to his feudal lord, and this, of course, 
tended to weaken the royal authority. 

Relations between Lords and Vassals. — The vassal was re- 
quired to take an oath of fidelity to his lord, declaring himself 



I 



SOCIETY IN THE MIDDLE AGES 277 

to be the latter's man. This ceremony, by which the fief was 
secured, was known as homage. The chief duty of the vassal 
in the warlike times of the Middle Ages was military service. 
He was obliged to serve his suzerain in war, and, if necessary, 
to lay down his life for him. 

Tlie lord had certain judicial rights over the fiefs which he 
had granted, and certain financial claims which were known as 
feudal aids. Tliese included a requirement to pay money for 
the ransom of the lord, and on the occasion of the knighting 
of his eldest son and the marriage of his eldest daughter. 
Tliese were the main legal aids, but other contributions were 
occasionally required. 

On the other hand, the lord owed the duty of protection to 
his vassal. So we may sum up the relations of lord and vassal 
by saying that on the one side there was the duty of protection, 
and on the other the duty of service. In fact, the relation be- 
tween them was very similar to that between the king and his 
subject. In several important respects the lord enjoyed sover- 
eign rights over the lands of his vassals. He levied troops 
and administered justice and raised money. When the king 
bestowed a fief upon a vassal, the grant carried with it these 
sovereign rights, or 'immunities.' If it is asked why the king 
should be willing to part with these rights, it can only be said 
that there was no other means by which he could purchase the 
loyalty of his followers. 

The Extent of Feudalism. — The period of the most rapid 
development of feudalism was under the later Carolingians 
in the ninth century, and it reached its highest point in the 
twelfth century. At that time it was the universal system of 
government in Europe ; but while in its mtiin principles it was 
the same, it differed in many important details, in different 
countries and even in different parts of the same country. At 
the time of its highest development, Europe was composed 
of a vast number of almost independent fiefs, and the royal 
authority was hardly greater than that of the principal 
vassals. 

Colby's gen. hist. — 18 



278 GENERAL HISTORY 

The Theory of Feudalism. — The central idea of feudalism 
was that the ownership of land carried with it the right of 
sovereignty over the people dwelling on the land. The king, 
according to the mediaeval notion, was the vassal of God, hold- 
ing his kingdom as a fief bestowed by God. He granted cer- 
tain portions of his kingdom to his followers in return for 
feudal service. They exercised a part of his authority over 
these estates and enjoyed his protection. They, in turn, 
granted portions of their land to others, who became their 
vassals, and these regranted it to still others. 

There was thus a regular descending scale from the king to 
the lowest vassal, each man rendering homage to the man 
above and protection to the man below. In the event of a 
war, the king called upon his immediate vassals, and they, 
in turn, upon their vassals, and so the army came into exist- 
ence upon demand, each soldier obeying the command of his 
liege. 

The Defects of Feudalism. — The main body of the population 
under the feudal system consisted of serfs and villains. The 
serfs were laborers or servants, and completely at the mercy 
of their lords, but could not be bought or sold. The villains 
belonged to a little higher class, but were, like the serfs, com- 
pletely subject to the will of their masters. 

The chief defect of feudalism lay in the weakening of the 
royal power. Each feudal lord was virtually a sovereign on 
his own domain and his power was often used tyrannically. 
Moreover, the vassals were constantly engaged in private war 
and society was in a condition of disorder. The people had no 
redress against the oppression of the barons, for the magistrates 
to whom alone an injured party could appeal belonged them- 
selves to the nobility. 

The Decay of Feudalism. — Both the king and the common 
people were opposed to the system, and it was therefore attacked 
from above and below. The king naturally sought to curtail 
the power of his vassals, and the common people often fled 
from their lords to take refuge in a city. The cities grew in 



SOCIETY IN THE MIDDLE AGES 



279 



strength, and partly by purchase and partly by force secured 
independence from their lords. 

Among the causes which contributed to the downfall of feu- 
dalism were, first, the crnsades, in which many of the nobility 
lost their lives or became impoverished, and second, the change 




Okkman Walled Tuwn 

in the art of war, owing to the introduction of gunpowder. 
This rendered the peasant as formidable as the armed knight. 
By the middle of the fifteenth century, feudalism was already 
far on the decline, and before the close of that century absolute 
monarchies made their appearance in Spain, France, and Eng- 
land. 

II. Chivalry 

Feudal Society. — In the Middle Ages society was divided 
into three classes : the nobility, the citizens or inhabitants of 
the towns, and the peasants or tillers of the soil. 

The Nobles. — The main office and aim of the nobility was to 
fight. Their castles were really fortresses, surrounded with 
thi-ck walls and a ditch. A strong gateway guarded the en- 
trance to the castle, and a passage through the gateway could 
be closed by shutting down from above a portcullis, or iron 
grating. The ruins of many of these castles survive to-day and 



280 



GENERAL HISTORY 



bear witness to the strength and formidable character of the 
dwellings. At first nobility was not a matter of birth alone, 
for wealth could purchase entry into its ranks. In the thir- 
teenth century, however, nobility became hereditary, and from 
that time intermarriage between the higher and lower classes 
was less frequent. 

The Citizens and Peasants. — The inhabitants of the cities 
came in the course of time to enjoy the right of self-government ; 
for, as the cities increased in wealth, they were able to resist 
the claims of their feudal lords and became feudal persons 
themselves with vassals of their own. The condition of the 
peasant was wretched. Whether he was a villain or a serf, the 
peasant's life was precarious and his well-being depended upon 
the caprice of his lord. 

The Knights. — The strength of the feudal army consisted 
mainly in its cavalry. The common people fought on foot, 

but any one who had the 
means of equipping himself 
with armor and a horse became 
a member of the cavalry. His 
rank was that of a gentleman, 
and he was called a cavalier or 
,'jkf^Vyf^\' -—-^fZ:^^^ knight. The word 'chivalry ' 

IP ;^^^ ^s ^y tlerivation associated 

with chevalier (cavalier) or 
knight. In the broad sense, 
however, it applies to matters 
of military exercise and feudal etiquette. 

The Origin of Chivalry. — The customs and ideas which char- 
acterized chivalry arose from the fondness of the Teutonic 
races for a warlike life and their gallantry toward the female 
sex. It was required of every young nobleman that he should 
follow the profession of arms. First he had to serve an ap- 
prenticeship of several years as the companion or squire of a 
knight. In this office he was engaged in personal service about 
the castle in times of peace, and in war or on the occasion of a 




V^'^-: 



Medtaevat. IItnting Horn 



SOCIETY IN thp: middle ages 



281 



tournament lie followed his lord and led the war horse. In 
battle he clothed his master in armor and attended him in the 
light, it being the squire's duty to come to his aid if at any 
time he saw him hard pressed. 

After this apprenticeship the young man was eligible to knight- 
hood. He was raised to the rank of knight by a peculiar cere- 
monial. Having fasted, spent a night in prayer, and attended 




A. Tournament 



mass, he was required to pass an examination to ascertain if 
he was worthy of admission to the order of knighthood. He 
then took certain vows, promising among other things to 
be a loyal, just, and gentle knight, to redress the wrongs of 
widows and orphans, to protect ladies, and to champion the 
Church. He was then equipped with the proper dress and 
armor of the order, and the ceremony was completed by the 



282 GENERAL HISTORY 

lord's striking him a blow on the neck Avith the flat side of 
his sword. 

Amusements of Chivalry. — The most famous amusement of 
the chivalrous age was the tournament, which took place in an 
open space surrounded by a balustrade or a rope, called the 
lists. It was a mimic combat between knights, who each tried 
to unhorse the other with his lance. The successful knight 
was hailed with shouts of applause from tlie spectators and 
received a prize from his mistress or the queen. Other amuse- 
ments of a less dangerous nature were hawking and hunting. 

The Character of Chivalry. — In some respects the effect of 
chivalry was ennobling. It j^romoted the virtues of bravery, 
loyalty, courtesy, and generosity. It was regarded as an order 
of merit, and a man was not entitled to knighthood by birth 
alone, but had first to prove that he was worthy of the honor. 

The spirit of the institution was religious as well as mili- 
tary. The knight was supposed to serve Christ by the purity 
of his life as well as by fighting for the cross. Moreover, it 
developed a fine sense of devotion and tended to elevate the 
position of women. In a barbarous time its influence was to 
soften the rough manners and enhance the humanity of men. 

The enthusiasm which chivalrous ideas aroused took shape 
in a great body of literature, and this literature was written no 
longer in the old Latin tongue, but in the native languages of 
the French, Italians, English, and Germans. 

On the other hand, chivalry too often degenerated into a 
mere matter of form and etiquette. It gave impulse to law- 
less adventures, and undue eagerness for military fame. It 
outlived its usefulness and became ridiculous. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Society in the Middle Ages. — Definition of Feudahsm : The Basis of 
Authority. The Lord, the Vassal, the Fief. —The Origin of Feudal- 
ism : The Fusion of the German Invaders with the Native Roman 
Population. The Allodial Lands. Lands granted on Condition of 
Service. Lands sometimes usurped. Lands sometimes voluntarily 



THE PAPAL POWER 283 

surrendered and received back as Fiefs. — Subinfeudation: Effect 
of tlie System on the Royal Authority. — Relations between Lords 
and Vassals: Homage. Military Service. Judicial Rights of the 
Lord. Financial Claims. Duties of the Lord. Immunities. — The 
Extent of Feudalism : Rapid Development under the later Carolingi- 
ans. The highest point reached for Feudalism. — The Theory of 
Feudalism : Its Central Idea. The Kingship. The Regular Scale of 
Authorities. The Feudal Army. — The Defects of Feudalism : Con- 
dition of the Lower Classes. Abuse of Power by the Feudal Lords. 

— The Decay of Feudalism : Opposition of the King and of the Com- 
mon People. Effect of the Crusades. The Discovery of Gunpowder. 

— Feudal Society : The Three Classes. — The Nobles : Their Castles. 
Nobility becomes Hereditary, — The Citizens and Peasants : Increase 
in the Power of the Citizens. Condition of the Peasantry. — The 
Knight: His Rank. — The Origin of Chivalry: Some Features of 
Chivalry. Knighthood. — Amusements of Chivalry: The Tourna- 
ment. — The Character of Chivalry. Its Encouragement of Certain 
Virtues. Religious Aspect of Chivalry. Effect on Literature. Bad 
Effects. 



CHAPTER XXXVII 

THE PAPAL POWER 

Introduction. — Some of the influences that led to the 
supremacy of the Eoman bishop in Europe have already 
been described. We have seen that the pope in the course 
of time became not only a spiritual ruler, but a secular prince, 
and that he claimed supremacy over kings and emperors. His 
supremacy in religious matters was early admitted in western 
Europe. It now remains to see how far he succeeded in gain- 
ing temporal power. Italy, it will be remembered, was, in 
theory at least, a part of the Holy Eoman Empire of the 
German Nation. The relations of the pope to the emperor 
became a matter of great importance, and during a large por- 
tion of the Middle Ages there was a struggle for supremacy 
between the two. Tlie imperial party held that the emperor, 
as representing the highest civil authority in the world, was 



284 



GENERAL HISTORY 



superior to the pope, while the pajial party held that the pope, 
as the vicar of God on earth, was above all earthly rulers. 

The Choice of Popes. — Down to nearly the middle of the 
twelfth century there had been much confusion in regard to 
the system of papal elections. Kings and nobles had often 
interfered in the choice of popes and caused men to be chosen 
merely because they were likely to favor their interests. On 
many occasions the German emperors had acted as if the Holy 
See were an office at their own disj)osal, and the result had 
been the degradation of the papacy and its subjection to the 
emperor. 

Reform of Church Discipline. — A young monk named Hil 'de- 
brand (afterward Gregory VII.), who had been educated at the 
Abbey of Clu'ny in France, came to Rome on 
the occasion of a papal election in 1044, and 
saw the abuses of the system. He thought 
that the only way to secure peace and honesty 
in papal elections was to transfer the choice 
of the pope to the clergy. In 1048 he came 
to Eome and soon rose to the rank of (Cardi- 
nal. For many years, although he was not 
^ '"f'y pope himself, he really controlled the policy 

- '- ~- of the papacy, and worked steadily to make 

the Church pure within and independent of all 
earthly power. To accomplish these things, 
he thought it necessary to change the method 
of electing popes, to take action against the 
vices of the clergy, and to make ecclesias- 
tics more completely subject to the Holy See. 
He did his best to uproot the evil known as 
simony, which consists in the buying and sell- 
ing of appointments to office in the Church ; 
for this practice tends to make the clergy the mere tools of the 
civil ruler. Another matter on which he insisted was the celi- 
bacy of priests, for he held their marriage to be in violation of 
the laws of the Church. He succeeded in advancing these re- 





BiSHOP's Crosier 



THE PAPAL POWER 285 

forms, and the effect of his efforts was greatly to increase the 
power of the Church. 

Reform of Papal Elections. — In the matter of the election of 
popes he was e(iually successful. On the death of Pope Vic- 
tor II. Hildebrand saw a chance for introducing his proposed 
reform; for the emperor on the German throne, Henry IV., was 
then a mere child. The new pope was chosen by the Iloman 
clergy and people, and quite independently of the choice of the 
emperor. In 1059 the new method of papal elections was 
formally decreed, and thenceforth the choice of the popes was 
made by a small assembly of the high dignitaries of the 
Roman Catholic Church ; in other words, the Sacred College 
of Cardinals. 

Gregory VII. — Hildebrand was elected pope in 1073 nnder 
the title of Gregory VII., and though chosen unanimously, 
accepted the office unwillingly, for he knew what difficulties 
awaited him. In the first year of his pontiticate he issued 
decrees against the marriage of priests and the purchase of tl>e 
Church offices. This caused a great storm among the clergy, 
but in the end the law of celibacy prevailed. He tried also 
to carry out the other reform which he had at heart ; namely, 
the removal of the clergy from subjection to the state. To do 
this it was necessary to wrest from the emperor powers which 
both he and his predecessors had constantly exercised. 

Investiture. — The question was whether the civil ruler could 
grant Church offices at will. The bestowal upon a candidate 
of the symbols of office was called investiture, and the struggle 
between the emperor and the pope is sometimes known as the 
War of Investiture. It had become the custom for the feudal 
lords to bestow on the bishops and abbots the symbols of their 
office without distinguishing between their secular and their 
ecclesiastical rights. Thus the feudal lord appeared to be the 
source of spiritual power. The emperor claimed this as a right 
and had frequently practiced it. 

Contest between Gregory and Henry IV. — In 1075 Gregory 
issued a decree forbidding any one to receive a Church office 



286 GENERAL HISTORY 

from a lay power. To this the emperor refused to submit, and, 
after bringing to a close a war which he was waging with the 
Saxons, he went on selling Church offices as usual. Gregory 
summoned him to Rome, but the papal ambassadors were 
driven from the emperor's courts with insults. At Rome a 
plot was formed against the pope, and he was seized and im- 
prisoned by one of the Roman nobles, but an uprising of the 
people caused his release. Henry called a council which de- 
clared the pope deposed, but the pope retorted by excommuni- 
cating Henry. The latter was hampered by troubles with his 
German subjects, many of whom were glad to take sides with 
the enemy. 

Canossa (1077). — Henry was soon deserted by his followers, 
and arrangements were made for summoning a diet to consider 
the question of his deposition. The pope was invited to pre- 
side at the diet, which was to meet in Germany. Henry was 
now afraid of losing his throne, and he tried to obtain an inter- 
view with the pope before the latter started for Germany. The 
pope did not wish this, but Henry went into Italy and inter- 
cepted him at Canossa (1077), where he implored forgiveness 
and promised to yield to all the pope's demands. Before 
Gregory granted this request, he required the emperor to 
undergo a painful and humiliating penance, standing for three 
days, it is said, barefoot in the snow. At last he was ad- 
mitted to the castle at which the pope was staying and forgive- 
ness was granted on condition that he present himself for 
trial at a later time and that he respect the rights of the 
Church. 

Henry had now gained what he wished, and proceeded to 
break all his promises. He was successful in his war with 
the nobles of Germany and defeated the forces of the pope. 
Finally, invading Italy, he gained access to Rome, and Gregory 
was driven into exile. 

Death and Character of Gregory VII. — Gregory died at Salerno 
in 1085, saying, as he approached his end, the often-quoted 
words: "I have loved justice and hated iniquity; therefore I 



THE PAPAL POWER 287 

die in exile." Apparently he had failed to realize his great 
aims, bnt in reality he had done more to increase the power of 
the papacy than any pope that had preceded him ; for he had 
mapped out the policy which his successors on the papal 
throne carried to success, and this policy raised the papal 
power for a time above all the civil rulers of Europe. 

It was his theory that the papal power in spiritual matters 
was the highest in the world, and that emperors and kings 
could be compelled to obedience by spiritual weapons. He 
thought that the great evil of his time was the dependence of 
the clergy upon the civil ruler, which obedience was maintained 
by the emperor's exercise of the right of investiture ; for the 
emperor gave not only the symbols of secular power, but of 
spiritual. The clergy under this system were vassals of the 
crown ; Gregory wished them to be under the sole power of the 
Church. As to his personal character, no one, not even his 
enemies, denied his sincerity and unselfishness. He was, more- 
over, the greatest man of his time, and his work left its stamp 
upon the Church for centuries. 

Henry V. — Gregory's great rival, Henry IV., outlived him 
twenty-one years. The latter part of his life was full of mis- 
fortunes and embittered by the revolt of his son. The new 
emperor, Henry V., was a more dangerous enemy of the papacy 
even than his father. He claimed all the rights that the latter 
had exercised, and, entering Rome, obliged the pope to crown 
him emperor and acknowledge the imperial right of investiture. 
As soon as Henry left Italy, however, the pope renounced his 
promise, and the struggle continued ten years longer. Finally, 
after nearly half a century had passed since the quarrel be- 
tween Henry TV and Gregory, a settlement was reached by 
the Concordat of Worms in 1122. This was of the nature of 
a compromise ; for while it was seen that the empire was too 
weak to enforce its claims to supremacy, it appeared still too 
strong to be made completely subordinate to the popes. 

Concordat of Worms. — The Concordat of Worms was an 
atteuipt to settle the matter without humbling either party. 



288 GENERAL HISTORY 

By it the emperor agreed to give up the right of bestowing 
the symbols of Church authority and to acknowledge the free 
election of the clergy by the clergy. The pope, on the other 
hand, agreed that the emperor or his representative should be 
present at the elections of clergy, provided that bribery or 
intimidation was not employed. The emperor also "was to 
bestow crown properties as before. Thus neither party gained 
all that it had been striving for, and neither had the right 
to bestow both spiritual and secular authority. These rights 
were divided between the two, the pope bestowing the signs 
of spiritual authority and the king bestowing the signs of 
temporal. 

Nevertheless the Concordat of Worms was really a triumph 
for the Church. The long struggle had shown clearly the 
great power of the i)opes, especially in its effect of weakening 
the loyalty of the feudal vassals of the king. As the great 
crown vassals became stronger, the power of the emperors was 
lessened. Moreover, the popes, being the natural allies of all 
enemies of the emperors, took sides Avith the cities which, 
although legally the vassals of the emperor, were fast increas- 
ing in power and asserting the right to govern themselves. 

Another effect of the weakness of the emperor and his 
hostility to the papacy was to make the popes and not the 
emperors the promoters of the crusades, an office which 
would naturally have fallen to the lot of the emperor in his 
capacity of defender of the faith. The popes received the 
credit for the crusades, and acquired as a result of them a 
far greater influence in Europe. 

Frederick I. (Barbarossa) and the Papacy. — Frederick Bar- 
baros'sa, one of the ablest of all the German emperors, was a 
far more powerful enemy than the popes had yet encountered. 
He came to the throne with a fixed resolve to extend the 
powers of his empire, and one of the first difficulties that he 
attacked was the growing independence of the Italian cities. 
They had united with the Church vassals and had gained such 
a measure of local self-government as to threaten the imperial 



THE PAPAL POWER 289 

power over them. He treated them as his fiefs and demanded 
the usual feudal services. The cities refused these demands and 
Milan, being the chief offender, was the first to suffer punish- 
ment. A large part of the city was destroyed ; a portion of 
the walls were pulled down and the inhabitants were forced to 
a humiliating surrender. 

This, however, did not break the spirit of these cities, and 
the so-called Lombard League was formed under the leader- 
ship of Milan. Then followed a sharp conflict between the 
emperor and the league. But in spite of his energy and 
ability he made no headway against it, and finally in the bat- 
tle of Legna'no (1176) was completely defeated. One of the 
chief reasons for his failure was the disloyalty of the German 
princes. 

Treaty of Venice — In 1177, he made with the pope the 
famous Treaty of Venice, whose terms were greatly to the dis- 
advantage of the emperor ; for the pope no less than the cities 
had profited by the victory at Legnano. In the Treaty of 
Venice, Frederick -virtually acknowledged that the imperial 
power was secondary to the papal. 

The terms made with the cities were very important. Ac- 
cording to the feudal laws, the allegiance of the latter was due 
to the emperor as their overlord. But he was obliged to yield 
his lawful claim and grant the cities the right of self-govern- 
ment. These concessions were made by the Treaty of Con- 
stance in 1183. 

Decay of the Imperial Power. — These events mark another 
stage in the great papal and imperial conflict. The Concordat 
of Worms in 1122 was, as we have seen, a compromise in which 
the advantage was on the side of the Church. The renewal of 
the conflict by the emperors in the hope of regaining what had 
been lost resulted in a still greater triumph for the Holy See 
in the treaties of Venice and Constance. A great blow was 
dealt to the power of the empire. The cities were independent, 
the Church was hostile, and the nobles were defiant; and 
although Frederick and his successors struggled bravely to 



290 GENERAL HISTORY 

maintain the power of their house, the foundation of the em- 
pire was shattered, and after the death of Frederick II., in 
1250, the imperial throne became the prize of any one who 
was strong enough to seize it. 

Innocent III. (1198-1216). — The reign of Innocent III. 
marks the highest point which the papal power ever attained. 
He followed in the footsteps of Gregory VII., aiming constantly 
at the supremacy of the Church over the State. 

The success with which he carried out this policy is illustrated 
by his contests with Philip Augustus of France and John of 
England. Before Innocent came to the throne, Philip Augustus 
had divorced his wife and illegally married Agnes of Meran. 
The divorce had been approved by the highest ecclesiastical 
authorities in France, but the ex-queen appealed to Innocent 
III., who saw an opportunity to test the question of papal 
supremacy and determined to force Philip Augustus to put 
away his new wife. The king paid no attention to the pope's 
demand, for he trusted to the loyalty of his people and felt 
himself strong enough to resist. 

The pope thereupon inflicted the severest punishment that 
the Church had in its power. He laid the kingdom under an 
interdict. This meant that all the offices of the Church were 
suspended, Avith the exception of the most necessary sacra- 
ments. The Church doors were closed, the dead were buried 
in unconsecrated ground, and the i)eople were deprived of 
the consolation of religion. To a pious people this was un- 
endurable, and the pressure on the king to comply with the 
pope's demand became too strong to be resisted. Philip 
Augustus finally yielded and sent away Agnes of Meran, 
who died soon afterwards. Since Philip Augustus was one 
of the strongest as well as the most headstrong monarch in 
Europe, this triumph was a remarkable proof of the pope's 
power. 

Contest with King John. — In the quarrel with John of Eng- 
land the issue was not a matter of personal morality, but of 
Church authority. There was a dispute about the election to 



THE PAPAL POWER 



291 



the Archbishopric of Canterbury, tlie most important Church 
office in England. The monks of Canterbury chose one candi- 
date and the king another, and then both parties appealed to the 
pope. Innocent rejected both candidates and proposed one of 
his own, Stephen Langton, a man in every way suitable for the 
office. John refused to submit, and the pope used against him 
the same means that had been employed to coerce Philip 
Augustus. He laid England under an interdict, and, though 




its effect was not so immediate as in Erance, it finally brought 
John to terms. Not only was John obliged to accept the 
pope's candidate, but he went so far as to surrender the king- 
dom of England* to the pope and receive it back as the pope's 
vassal, paying in token of vassalage a sum of money each 
year. 

Suppression of Heresy. — Innocent was equally vigorous in 



292 GENERAL HISTORY 

suppressing keresy, and in doing so he employed the same 
means as were used against the infidels. A crusade against 
the Albigen'ses, an heretical sect in southern France, was 
undertaken and carried out with success, but was marked by 
revolting cruelties. 

Decline of the Papal Power — The popes continued to wield 
a vast power for many years after the death of Innocent III. 
They were strengthened by two new orders of monks which 
were founded early in the thirteenth century and named after 
their founders, St. Dom'inic and St. Francis. These Dominican 
and Franciscan monks returned to a more rigid discipline and 
a more complete exclusion from worldly things, and having no 
ambitions or hopes outside of the Church, they directed all 
their efforts to advancing its interests, and were stanch sup- 
porters of the pope. 

But toward the close of the thirteenth century, the papal 
authority began to show signs of weakness, and as the reign 
of Innocent III. illustrates the power of the popes, their wan- 
ing influence can also be illustrated by an example. Boniface 
VIII. , who ruled from 1294 to 1303, became involved in a 
quarrel with Philip IV. of France over the question of taxing 
the clergy. Philip claimed that right, and when Boniface 
ordered him to desist, saying that he was subject in spiritual 
things to the Holy See, Philip returned a defiant answer. 
Although Boniface issued decree after decree against him, 
placed him under the ban and declared him deposed from the 
throne, the king gained his point; for the people were on 
his side. In the Assembly of the States-General, it was de- 
clared that France was not subject to the pope in temporal 
matters. For many years after this the papacy was wholly 
subject to French influence, and in 1309 the Holy See was 
removed from Kome to Av'ignon, in France, where it remained 
for nearly seventy years (1309-1378), a period known in Church 
history as the Babylonian Captivity of the Church. As a 
natural result of this, the respect for the papacy declined. 

The Great Schism (1378-1417). — The removal of the papal 



THE PAPAL POWER 293 

seat to Avignon gave offense to the Italian members of the 
Sacred College, and they chose a pope who promised to take 
up his residence at Rome. The French cardinals, preferring 
Avignon as the seat of the pope, chose an antipope of their 
own. There was thus a division or schism in the Church, and 
there were for many years two lines of popes. This of course 
weakened the influence of the papacy, for people did not know 
who was the rightful pope. 

Council of Pisa. — These years were a dark period in the his- 
tory of the (Jliurch, and the evils of the time led to efforts for 
reform, notably the movements of John Wyclif and John Huss. 
Finally, as the only way of settling the matter, a council of 
the Church was called to decide who was the just claimant to 
the papal throne. This council, which assembled at Pisa in 
1409, recognized neither of the popes, and set up a third one ; 
but as both the deposed popes insisted on maintaining their 
rule, the decision of the council only made matters worse, for 
there were now three popes instead of two. 

Council of Constance. — But the Council of Constance was 
more successful. After deposing the three popes, it chose 
Martin V., in 1417, and he was generally acknowledged. This 
brought the Great Schism to an end, but the effect of it was 
none the less important. The papacy thenceforth had no 
chance of gaining that supremacy over the civil power which 
was aimed at by Gregory VII. and his immediate successors. 

Conclusion. — As a result of the long struggle between the 
papacy and the civil powers, it may be said that the attempt 
to make the Church supreme in temporal matters had failed. 
As the Middle Ages drew toward their close, the feeling^ of 
nationality became stronger and the power of the kings in- 
creased. Both these facts tended to lessen the authority of 
the popes Avhen they interfered in secular affairs. On the 
other hand, their spiritual supremacy remained. Here and 
there it was questioned, and reform movements were started ; 
but throughout the fifteenth century the Holy See continued 
to be the highest authority in spiritual matters. It was not 
Colby's gen. hist. — 19 



294 GENERAL HISTORY 

till the following century, that any of the states of Europe 
ventured to separate from the Roman Catholic Church. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Papal Power. — Introduction: The Pope a Secular as well as a 
Spiritual Ruler. The Points at Issue between the Imperial and the 
Papal Parties. — The Choice of Popes : Interference of the Secular 
Power. — Reform of Church Discipline : llildebrand\s Influence at 
Rome. His Proposed Reforms. Simony, Celibacy. — Reform of 
Papal Elections : The New Principle of Papal Elections established by 
the Decree of 1059. — Gregory VII. : His Election as Pope. His Vig- 
orous Policy. — Investiture : Definition of Investiture. The War of 
Investiture. — Contest between Gregory and Henry IV. : Gregory's 
Decree against Lay Investiture. The Emperor's Opposition. His 
Phnbarrassment in Germany. — Canossa (1077) : Humiliation of 
Henry. His Faithlessness. The Exile of Gregory. — Death and 
Character of Gregory VII. : Effect of his Reign on the Papal Power. 
His Theory of Church Government. His Greatness. — Henry V. : 
Renewed Struggle with the Pope. A Compromise Formed. — Con- 
cordat of Worms (1122) : Concessions on Both Sides. The Concordat 
really a Triumph for the Church. — Frederick I. and the Papacy : 
The Growing Independence of the Italian Cities. The Punishment 
of Milan. The Lombard League. Frederick's Defeat at Legnano. — 
Treaty of Venice : Triumph of the Pope. Concessions to the Cities 
in the Treaty of Constance (1183). — Decay of the Imperial Power. — 
Innocent III. (1198-1216) : An Instance of his Great Power. Quar- 
rel with Philip Augustus. The Victory of the Pope. — Contest with 
King John : The Election of an Archbishop of Canterbury. Stephen 
Langton. John's Humiliation. — Suppression of Heresy : The Albi- 
genses. — Decline of the Papal Power : The Dominican and Francis- 
can Orders. Boniface VIII. An Instance of the Declining Power of 
the Pope. Boniface VIII. and Philip IV. Papal See at Avignon. 
. The Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1309-1378). —The Great 
Schism (1378-1417).— The Council of Pisa.— The Council of Con- 
stance : The End of the Great Schism. — Conclusion : Failure of the 
Church to secure Temporal Supremacy. Its Spiritual Supremacy. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 

ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 

The Norman Conquest. — It is said that the Anglo-Saxon king, 
Edward the Confessor, promised the succession to William, 
Duke of Xormandy, and tliat the promise was renewed by 
Harold, the heir to the throne. These alleged promises were 
the grounds of William's claim, and when Harold became 
king on Edward's death, the Norman duke, accusing him of 
perfidy, prepared to invade England. Harold was brave and 
determined, but his enemies were more numerous and better 
disciplined, and in the battle of Senlac or Hastings (1066) his 
forces were routed and he himself was killed. Thus the old 
Anglo-Saxon dynasty came to an end, and the chief power in 
the state passed into the hands of the Xormans. During the 
next hundred years the two races gradually mingled, and the 
result was a civilization that was neither Anglo-Saxon nor 
Norman, but a fusion of the two. This complete fusion of 
the races was chiefly due to the fact that both traced their 
origin to a pure Teutonic ancestry. 

I. The Norman Kings ^ 

William the Conqueror (1066-1087) • — Although William 
really ruled "as king by the edge of the sword," he preferred 
to base his title on the promise of Edward the Confessor rather 
than on force of arms ; and he adhered so far as possible to 
Anglo-Saxon usages, causing himself to be crowned at West- 
minster and binding himself to frame good laws and observe 
justice, as his predecessors had done. In fact he professed to 

1 William I. (the Conqueror), 1066-1087. 
William II. (Rufus), 1087-1100. 
Henry L, 1100-1135. 
Stephen, 1135-1164. 
295 



296 



genp:ral history 



regard himself as the lawful successor of the Anglo-Saxon 
kings, and not merely as a feudal conqueror. He had great 
difficulty in making the people recognize him as such, but 
when this was once done, he was a far more powerful ruler as 
king of England than he was as Norman duke. 

The Anglo-Saxons were a sturdy race, and William's power 
was not fully established till 1071, when the brave native 

chieftain Hereward was driven 
from his stronghold in the 
marshes of Ely. The revolts 
of the natives left them in a 
worse position than before, for 
more of their land was confis- 
cated and granted by the king 
to his Norman vassals. All the 
higher offices were filled witli 
Normans, who became the rul- 
ing class, and the Norman sys- 
tem of government, in which 
feudalism was further developed 
than in England, was introduced. 
Yet William retained many of 
the Anglo-Saxon institutions, 
especially in the lower branches of the administration. He 
showed good statesmanship in the way he parcelled out the 
land among his followers. To avoid the danger of placing too 
much power in the hands of his vassals, he did not grant large 
continuous tracts of land to single persons, but gave each 
separate estates, often in different counties. 

Doomsday Book. — A survey of the land was carried out in 
the winter of 1085-1086, and its results were embodied in the 
Doomsday Book, which contains a careful and minute descrip- 
tion of the lands of the kingdom, an estimate of their value, 
and an enumeration of the various classes of landholders. It 
is a remarkable work, and one of the chief sources for the his- 
tory of the political and social conditions of the time. 




William the Conqueror, as repre- 
sented ON HIS Seal 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 



297 




Character of William's Government. — One of the chief defects 
of the feudal system was that the king was cut off from the 
common people through the intermediate vassals, to whom 
service was due rather than to the king. To remedy this Wil- 
liam required all land- ^^„ 



owners to take the oath 
of fealty to himself. He 
preferred to rule as the 
king of a nation rather 
than as a feudal lord, and 
the people came to see that 
their interests were better 
served by him than by the 
nobles, or barons. The 
troubles of his reign were 
between the king and the 

nobles, not between the Norman Gateway, Windsor Castle 

king and the common 

people. He was harsh, but impartial, and he maintained 

the public peace and repressed tlie lawlessness of the barons. 

William II. (Rufus, 1087-1100). — William the Conqueror 
was succeeded by his second son, W^illiam Eufus, who, though 
cruel and passionate, inherited some of his father's ability. 
He, too, saw that it was good policy to win the favor of his 
English subjects. Two insurrections broke out in his reign, 
and both were put down largely through the aid rendered by 
the English. He was murdered in the New Eorest in 1100. 

Henry I. (iioo-i 135). —Henry I., the younger brother of 
W^illiam Eufus, came to the throne in spite of the opposition 
of his brother Eobert, who as the eldest son of the Conqueror 
had inherited Normandy. Henry succeeded in gaining the 
support of the people by issuing a charter of liberties and by 
his marriage with Matilda, a descendant of the old Anglo- 
Saxon line. He was, moreover, the first of the Norman kings 
who was born in Engla.nd. When he found liimself secure on 
the English throne, he took advantage of Eobert's weakness 



298 GENERAL HISTORY 

and invaded Normandy. The result was the defeat and im- 
prisonment of Robert. Henry was now Duke of Normandy as 
well as king of England, and both titles were transmitted to 
his successors. The fines imposed upon his enemies and the 
confiscation of their lands greatly added to the royal power 
and correspondingly weakened that of the barons, but Henry 
used this power wisely. To the nation at large he promised, 
in the charter of liberties, to restore the Anglo-Saxon laws, 
and the general object of his policy was to strengthen the 
lower orders of society and make them his friends, as an offset 
to the power of the nobility. A selfish but politic ruler, he 
saw the identity of his own interests with those of the people, 
and in helping them he helped himself. He was peace-lov- 
ing and administered even-handed justice. "No man durst 
misdo against another in his time," says the Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle. 

Stephen (1135-1154). — Disregarding the claims of Henry 
I.'s daughter Matilda, Stephen usurped the throne and by 
his energy and boldness succeeded in holding it. He fol- 
lowed the example of his predecessors in trying to win over 
the English by promising to administer justice and abolish 
unfair taxation, but in the troubles of the reign these pledges 
were little regarded. His reign, in fact, was one of the 
worst in English history. He was constantly at odds with the 
nobles, and the country was distracted by civil wars. The 
Scots, Matilda's allies, invaded the north of England, and 
though they were routed in the Battle of the Standard, Stephen 
did not know how to profit from his victory. He had been 
foolish enough to allow the barons to build strong castles, and 
when his misgovernment provoked them to revolt, he found 
the country dotted with hostile fortresses. Nor did peace 
bring much benefit to the people, for these castles became the 
shelter of tyranny and robbery. " There are as many tyrants 
as there are lords of castles," complains a historian of the time. 
The anarchy and violence of the time have caused it to be 
regarded by some as the darkest period of English history. 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 299 

At last, however, Stephen came to an agreement with Matilda's 
son Henry, acknowledging him as his successor and promising 
to restore good order in his kingdom.^ 

II. The Plaxtagenets to 1399^ 

Henry II. (1154-1189). — Henry II. was the son of Geoffrey 
Flantag'enet and Matilda, the daughter of Henry I., and the 
first of the Plantagenet dynasty, which ruled England in the 
direct line till 1399. Inheriting wide domains in France, he 
ruled over a greater extent of territory than any previous 
English king. His aim as a ruler was to systematize and 
centralize the government and to weaken the power of the 
barons. He destroyed many castles of the nobles, and by 

1 The Norman Line : 
William I. (1066-1087), m. Matilda, daughter of Baldwin V. of Flanders. 

I 



William IL (lliifus) Henry I. (1100-1135), Adela, m. Stephen, 

(1087-1100). ni. Matilda, daughter of Count of Blois. 

Malcolm, King of Scotland. | 

I Stephen (1135-1154). 

Matilda (d. 1167), 
m, Geoffrey Plantagenet, 
Count of Anjou. 

I 
Henry II., first 

Plantagenet King (1151-1189). 
2 Plantagenets in the Direct Line, i.e., to 1399 . 
Henry IL (1154-1189). 
I 

I 1 

Richard L (1189-1199). John (1199-1216). 

I 
Henry III. (1216-1272). 

I 
Edward I. (1272-1307). 

I 
Edward II. (1307-1327). 

Edward III. (1327-1377). 

The Black Prince (d. 1377). 

Richard II. (1377-1399) 



300 



GENERAL HISTORY 



accepting money in place of military service secured the means 
of supporting a military force of his own. 

Thomas a Becket. — During the early years of the reign 
Thomas a Becket, as the king's chancellor, liad shown great 
zeal in his cause, but, being appointed archbishop of Canter- 
bury in 1162, he devoted himself wholly to the interests of 
the church and the exaltation of his office, and became the 
most dangerous of the king's foes. The main point at issue 
between them was the trial of members of the clergy who had 
been guilty of crime. The civil courts had lost all authority 




JJeatii of Eecket 



over clerical offenders, who were tried by the church tribunals. 
But the latter bodies could inflict only spiritual penalties, and 
serious offenses often went without adequate punishment. In 
the Constitutions of Clarendon (1104) it was decided that 
ecclesiastics accused of crime must first be summoned before 
the king's justices, who were to determine whether the offense 
came within tlie jurisdiction of a secular or a spiritual court. 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 301 

Becket reluctantly agreed to this, as well as to other provisions 
seriously affecting tlie authority of the church, but soon after- 
wards sent to the pope and asked forgiveness for wliat he had 
done. The king's party was powerful, and Becket took refuge 
in France, but a few years later, through the aid of the pope 
and the French king, was reinstated. On his return to Eng- 
land he angered the king by excommunicating the bishops who 
liad taken sides against him. Henry, in a moment of rage, 
spoke some hasty words, which were construed by his attend- 
ants as a wish for the murder of Becket. They broke into tlie 
cathedral where the latter had taken refuge and killed him at 
the altar (December, 1170). Becket was now regarded as a 
martyr and a patron saint, and the king was finally obliged 
to make his submission to the papal representative and declare 
on oath his innocence of all complicity in the murder. Thus 
the apparent outcome of the struggle was unfavorable to the 
king, but in reality Henry gained the main object for which 
he had been working. The church courts no longer enjoyed 
sucli complete authority over criminal members of the clergy. 

General Results of Henry's Reign. —Henry greatly strength- 
ened the monarchy. He improved the administration of jus- 
tice and lessened the power of the nobles. In his struggle 
with Becket he tried to maintain the supremacy of the state 
over the church, and in this he was in large jiart successful. 

The Invasion of Ireland. — At this period Ireland had made 
little progress in civilization. To conquer it and make it an 
English dependency was long a favorite scheme of Henry's. 
In 1155 Hadrian IV., the only Englishman that ever occupied 
the papal throne, issued a bull approving the plan and declar- 
ing it to be his will that the Irish should recognize Henry as 
their lord. JN'othing was done for several years, but in 1169 
a quarrel between two Irish chiefs gave the English a chance 
to interfere, and a number of barons, headed by Ki chard of 
Clare, surnamed Strongbow, established themselves in Ireland. 
They ackpowledged Henry as the feudal lord over the lands 
which they had seized, and a large part of the country which 



302 GENERAL HISTORY 

was still ruled by native chiefs also submitted to him. Fi- 
nally, by the Treaty of Windsor (1175), Roderick of Con- 
naught recognized Henry as his feudal sovereign and in turn 
was acknowledged by the latter as king over all tho6e parts 
of Ireland which were not held by the English. But Ireland 
was by no means conquered. Irish laws and customs still pre- 
vailed, except in the parts colonized by the English, and the 
subsequent history of the country is concerned with the spread 
of English laws and the extension of English authority from 
the little strip of territory in the east known as the Pale. 

Richard I. (1189-1199). — Richard's reign was that of an 
absentee king, for he passed but a few months in his own 
country. Military glory was the passion of his life, and Eng- 
land was to hiui merely the source of supplies for his continual 
and profitless wars. The part which he played in the Third 
Crusade has already been described. On his return he was soon 
engaged in war with Philip Augustus of France. To meet the 
enormous expenses of this lavish and imprudent prince, exces- 
sive taxes were imposed upon the people. But the results 
were not altogether bad, for the justiciar was a wise admin- 
istrator, and in order to get the most out of the people with 
the least oppression systematized the methods of taxation 
and even provided for a sort of representation. Thus a better 
and more equitable system of taxation was established. 

John (1199-1216). — John is regarded as the worst king that 
England ever had, but his reign lias had more important con- 
sequences than that of any other English sovereign. The 
events of the reign may be grouped under the following heads: 
(1) Foreign Affairs; (2) Relations with the Church; (3) Strug- 
gle with the Barons. 

John's Foreign Possessions. — In France John held Normandy 
and Aquitaine, but his claim to Anjou, Maine, and Touraine 
was disputed by his nephew Arthur. Wliile as king of Eng- 
land he had no superior, he was, according to feudal law, the 
vassal of the French king Philip for his possessions on the 
Continent. Having offended a powerful family in France by 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 303 

a foolish and unworthy act, he was summoned by Philip to 
trial as his vassal. John refused to obey, and Philip there- 
upon declared him to have forfeited his tiefs. Even after this 
John took Arthur prisoner and murdered him. Philip sum- 
moned him a second time, and upon John's refusal invaded the 
latter's French dominions. By the summer of 1204, Philip was 
supreme in Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine. Thus 
the English power on the Continent was swejjt away. 

John's Relations with the Church. — John suffered an equally 
severe humiliation as a result of his resistance to the papal 
authority. His attempt to appoint a candidate of his own to 
the archbishopric of Canterbury brought ou that quarrel with 
Innocent III., the outcome of which has already been cited as 
an instance of the great power wielded by the popes at that 
time. Innocent laid the kingdom under a,n interdict (1208) 
and the next year excommunicated the king. John seized the 
estates of the clergy and forced many to leave the kingdom. 
But the pope issued a bull deposing him and commissioned 
Philip of France to drive him from the throne. John was as 
abject in surrender as he had been arrogant in resistance. He 
not only accepted the pope's candidate, Stephen Langton, but 
surrendered the kingdom to the pope and received it back as 
a fief subject to tribute. 

John's Struggle with the Barons. — One of the many griev- 
ances of which John's subjects complained was the excessive 
taxation. He levied exorbitant taxes on the pretense of carry- 
ing on a military campaign, and then disbanded the army 
without attempting to fight. For instance, in 1205, when an 
invasion was feared, he assembled a great force and began 
preparations for carrying the war into France. He himself 
started out as if to lead the expedition ; but he went only a 
short distance and then returned, disbanded his troops, and 
accepted money. When he led an array into France he had 
some success ; but his allies suffered a disastrous defeat at Bou- 
vines (1214). He was despised for his cowardice and hated for 
his extortions. At last the barons drew up a scheme of reforms ; 



304 



GENERAL HISTORY 



9 i 



and though the king held out for a while, his friends soon fell 
away, and at Runnymede, on June 15, 1215, he was compelled 
to sign the famous Magna Charta (Great Charter). 

Magna Charta. — The Great Charter is one of the most famous 
documents in history. It is regarded as the foundation of the 
civil liberty of Englishmen. Yet many of its principles had 
been long recognized. Men could point from Magna Charta 
back to the charter of liberties in Henry I.'s reign, and from 
that to the laws of Edward the Confessor, and from these to 
the laws of Alfred. This constant regard for precedent and 
refusal to break with the past is the characteristic of Anglo- 
Saxon political history. Nevertheless many privileges which 
were formerly a mere matter of usage were 
now expressly guaranteed, and it was a 
great gain to have the rights of subjects 
acknowledged in a written instrument. 
The important princi]3les declared by 
Magna Charta are, (1) No taxes shall be 
¥-^'?j^ i levied without the consent of the great 

^mf'f^ I council of the realm. (2) No free man shall 

be seized or imprisoned except through the 
loyal judgment of his peers. (3) Justice 
shall not be denied to any man; nor shall 
it be bought and sold. 

John agreed to this charter, but very 
soon broke his promises. War with the 
barons resulted, and the king was success- 
ful. The barons now called in the aid of 
the French prince Louis, the son of Philip Augustus, but be- 
fore a decisive battle could be fought, John died (1216). 

Henry III. (1216-1272). — In return for Louis' aid the bar- 
ons had agreed to acknowledge him as their ruler, but now 
that John was out of the way they turned against him and 
drove him out of England. Henry III. was but nine years 
old when he was crowned. As he grew older, it became 
evident that he was totally unfit to rule; for while he was 




Knight of the Thir- 
teenth Century 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 305 

gentle and kindly, he was capricious, vain, and weak. His 
foreign ventures ended in failure and created an enormous 
debt. His misgovernment finally led to the assembling of the 
so-called 'Mad Parliament,' which set up committees of barons 
to control the king. This arrangement soon broke down, and 
for a time there was civil war. Simon of Montfort, Earl of 
Leicester, was the leader in the opposition to the king, and in 
1265 he took the important step of summoning representatives 
of the cities to meet in Parliament, and many of the common 
people who had shown themselves faithful to the cause of 
liberty were also bidden. This was the beginning of the Eng- 
lish House of Commons. In the same year Simon of Montfort 
was defeated and killed, but not before he and his party had 
secured all that they had fought for; and during the rest of 
Henry's reign the kingdom enjoyed constitutional govern- 
ment. 

Edward I. (1272-1307). — ^ Edward I. was a great contrast to 
his father. He was a brave and skillful soldier, a trained 
lawyer, an able organizer, and a patriotic king. He conquered 
Wales and incorporated it in his dominions (1283). He caused 
himself to be acknowledged as king of Scotland, and when the 
Scots revolted under their brave leader William Wallace, he 
invaded Scotland and overthrew them in the battle of Falkirk. 
He continued the representation of the Commons in Parlia- 
ment, and when he issued writs for the assembling of that 
body in 1295 he declared, "It is a most equitable rule that 
what concerns all should be approved by all, and common 
danger be repelled by united efforts." 

Edward II. (1307-1327). — All that Edward I. had gained in 
Scotland was lost through the incapacity of his son Edward II. 
The decisive Scottish victory of Bannockburn (1314) secured 
the independence of the northern kingdom, leaving the brave 
native prince Kobert Bruce in possession of the throne. 
Edward's misgovernment at home involved him in a con- 
tinuous struggle with his vassals. He disregarded the rights 
of the barons and offended them by the choice of unworthy 



306 GENERAL HISTORY 

favorites. In 1327 he was deposed by Parliament and soon 
afterwards murdered at Berkeley Castle. 

Edward III. (1327-1377). — Edward III. was one of the 
ablest of England's kings. The first part of the reign was 
taken up with an attempt to recover Scotland, but the out- 
break of the war with France caused a division of the English 
forces, and Scotland remained free. The war with France, 
known as the Hundred Years' War, arose from Edward's claim 
to the French throne. In the early part of the conflict the 
English were successful, winning the two famous battles of 
Crecy (1346) and Poi'tiers (1356), and capturing the city of 
Calais, which remained in English hands for two hundred 
years. By the treaty of Bret'igny (1360) Edward acquired full 
sovereignty over his duchy of Aquitaine but renounced his 
claim to the French throne. Edward's son, the famous Black 
Prince, was the foremost warrior of the time, but lacked good 
judgment and prudence as a general. Upon the renewal of 
the war the English lost most of their conquests. 

As a civil ruler Edward had many faults. He was unscru- 
pulous, and not only levied unjust taxes, but allowed them 
to be collected by dishonest men, so that the royal treasury 
received only a fraction of the proceeds. Yet he was loved by 
the common people, especially during the early part of the 
reign, for he was a patriotic and thoroughly English king. 
Great credit is due to him for his efforts to promote native 
industries. 

Richard II. (1377-1399)- — The two chief events of Richard 
II. 's reign were the revolt of the peasants and that dissension 
in the royal party which led in a later reign to the ruinous 
War of the Roses. In the reign of Edward III. the terrible 
pestilence known as the Black Death had swept over Europe, 
causing a loss of life which can not be calculated, but which is 
estimated by some at one third of the population. The effect 
of this was to cause a scarcity of labor and to raise the price 
of all the necessaries of life. At this time many laborers had 
purchased their freedom from enforced labor on the estates of 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES SOT 

their lords and were working for pay in the manner of our 
modern wage-earners. The high price of labor due to the hard 
times was attributed by the nobles to the greed of the work- 
ingmen, and laws were passed fixing the rate of wages. The 
landlords tried also to force the laborers back into the position 
of serfs, for by this means they would secure the labor requi- 
site for the cultivation of their estates. Another grievance of 
the laborers was the excessive taxation, and especially the im- 
position of a poll tax, which fell upon a class hitherto exempt. 
These and other oppressions finally provoked the peasants to 
revolt. Stirred up by the preaching of the fanatical John Ball, 
and headed by 
Wat Tyler, they 
began a campaign 
of pillage and 
murder. A force 
one hundred thousand strong 
entered London, but the king's 
presence of mind saved the city. 
He made them fair promises, 
and they dispersed to their 
homes, but Parliament refused 
to redress their grievances. So 
far as immediate benefits were ,1 ^^^ , ^x 

concerned, the revolt amounted „ r, r. 

' _ Hand Cannon, Fourteenth CKNTtrRY 

to nothing, but it had a whole- 
some effect on the upper classes, who were thenceforth less 
tyrannical in their treatment of the peasantry. 

As time passed, the king tried to rid himself of all restraint 
in his government, and for a time succeeded; but his quarrel 
with Henry, Duke of Lancaster, whom he feared as a possible 
rival, brought about his ruin. He had banished the duke from 
England, but while Eichard was absent in Ireland, Henry 
returned, gathered the nobles around him, and obliged the 
king to abdicate. Thus the direct line of the Plantagenets 
came to an end. 




308 



GENERAL HISTORY 



III. The Houses of Lancaster axd York^ 

Dynasties. — When Eichard II, abdicated, Henry of Lancas- 
ter secured the crown, although he was not the next heir to it. 
The next two kings also were of the house of Lancaster ; but 
in 1461, as we shall see, the crown passed to the house of 
York. 

Henry IV. (1399-1413). — This king's title had as its basis 
the consent of Parliament. If it had not been for the support 
he received from Parliament, the barons, and the clergy, he 
could never have gained the throne. He had therefore to be 
careful not to offend those on whose good will his ^^ower de- 
pended. He tried to make up for a bad title by good govern- 
ment, and he showed himself a skillful and prudent man. 
He crushed a conspiracy on behalf of Kichard, and in the 
battle of Shrewsbury (1403), where his son, the young prince 
Hal, distinguished himself, overthrew the insurgent barons. 
Later he put down a revolt of the Welsh. 

Henry V. (1413-1422). — This reign is remarkable for the 
renewal of the Hundred Years' War. Henry invaded France, 
and in the battle of Ag'incourt (1415) won the third great vic- 



1 Descent of the houses of Lancaster and York. 





Edward III. (1327-1377). 




1 

Edward, 
the Black Prince. 

Richard II. 
(1377-1399). 

Will 


1 

Lionel, 

Duke of 

Clarence. 

iam 


John of Gaunt, 
Duke of Lancaster. 

1 
Henry IV. (1399-1413). 

Henry V. (1413-1422). 

Henry VI. (1422-14G1). 


Edmund, 
Duke of York. 

Richard, 

Earl of Cambridge, 

m. Anne Mortimer, 

a descendant of 

Lionel, 

Duke of Clarence. 

1 






Richard, 

Duke of York. 

1 




Edward IV. (14G1-148.3) 
Edward V. (1483). 


Richard III 
(1483-1485) 



FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 309 

tory of the war. The greater part of France was now in Eng- 
lish hands, and by the Treaty of Troyes Henry secured the 
regency and the promise of the crown for himself and his heir 
on the death of the French king. But Henry died too soon to 
gain this object of his ambition, and the next events belong to 
a later chapter. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 
England in the Middle Ages. — The Norman Conquest: Battle of 
Hastings. The Norman Kings. — William the Conqueror : His Re- 
gard for Anglo-Saxon Usages. Revolts of the Natives. William's 
Policy. — Doomsday Book. — Character of William's Government. — 
William II. — Henry I. : Conflict with Robert. Henry's Govern- 
ment. — Stephen : Civil War. Settlement of Succession. — The 
Plantagenets. — Henry II. : Extent of his Power. — Thomas a Becket : 
Constitutions of Clarendon. Murder of Becket. Result of the Con- 
flict. — General Results of the Reign. — The Invasion and Settle- 
ment of Ireland. — Richard I. : Character of Richard's Rule. — John. 

— John's Foreign Possessions : Loss of English Territory in France. 

— John's Relations with the Church: His Humiliation. — John's 
Struggle with the Barons. — Magna Charta. — Henry III. : The ' Mad 
Parliament.' — Edward I. — Edward II. — Edward III. — The Hun- 
dred Years' War. Edward III.'s Character as a Ruler. — Richard 
II. : The Peasants' Revolt. Richard's Deposition and Death. — The 
Houses of Lancaster and York. — Dynasties. — Henry IV. — Henry 
V. : Battle of Agincourt. Treaty of Troyes. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 

FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 

The Capetian Dynasty.^ — On the extinction of the Carolin- 
gian line Hugh Capet was chosen king by the great nobles, 

1 Hugh Capet, 987. Louis VII., 1137. Philip IV., 1285. 

Robert, 996. Philip II., 1180. Louis X., 1314. 

Henry I., 1031. Louis VIII., 1223. John L, 1316. 

Philip I., 1060. Louis IX., 1226. Philip V., 1316. 

Louis VI., 1108. Philip III., 1270. Charles IV., 1322. 

Colby's gen. hist. — 20 



310 GENERAL HISTORY 

He was the founder of the Capetian line, which ruled France 
from 987 to 1328. The feudal system was now at its height, 
and the king had hardly more power than his great vassals. 
After the Norman conquest of England in 1066 tlie ISTorman 
duke became a still more powerful rival of the French king, 
and we have seen in the previous chapter how sharp was the 
conflict between the French and English monarchs over the 
latter's possessions in France. The internal condition of 
France under the Capetian dynasty was generally marked by 
disorder and lawlessness, but some of the kings were fairly 
successful in maintaining the royal authority. One of the 
most vigorous rulers was Philip II., surnamed Augustus. 

Philip Augustus of France (i 180-1223). — We have seen how 
Philip II. (Augustus) took part in the Third Crusade, but 
having quarreled with Richard the Lion-Hearted returned in 
disgust to France. His reign is more important in the matter 
of domestic affairs. He was unscrupulous and shrewd, neg- 
lecting no means by which his power could be enhanced. He 
added greatly to the royal demesnes and acquired considerable 
treasure by confiscating the property of the Jews. On Rich- 
ard's return from the Third Crusade a war arose between the 
two kings, but Richard was killed in 1199, and Philip's rival 
was now the weak and unpatriotic king John, who allowed the 
English possessions in France to fall, one by one, into the 
hands of the French monarch. At one time it even seemed 
as if the crown of England would fall to a French king; for 
when John broke his oath to the barons, after signing the 
Great Charter, they offered the crown to Philip's son, Louis, 
in return for his aid in deposing John. But the death of 
the latter ruined the cause of the French king. The barons 
joined against Louis and chose as their king John's son, 
Henry III. 

In the reign of Philip Augustus the war against the Albi- 
genses began. These people, deriving their name from the 
city of Albi in southern France, held views at variance with 
the teachings of the church, and in 1208 Innocent III. preached 



FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 311 

a crusade against them. The crusade was carried on with 
cruelty by Philip's nobles, especially by the French count, 
Simon of Montfort, and a few years after Philip's death the 
territories of these heretics were incorporated in the kingdom 
of Prance. An inquisition to seek out and punish all who had 
not embraced the orthodox faith completed the destruction of 

the sect. 

Louis IX. of France (1226-1270). — The personal character 
of Louis IX., who was known as Saint Louis, strengthened 
the throne by inspiring the veneration of the people. He 
was a man of great piety and of pure motives. He showed 
the intolerance of his times in dealing with Jews and heretics, 
but in general his policy was characterized by mildness. The 
power of the throne was increased in his reign at the expense 
of the feudal lords. Reforms were introduced into the judi- 
cial system, and the king's courts acquired a higher authority. 
In relations with foreign nations France gained a position of 
great importance. Louis's crusading ventures were, as we 
have seen, unsuccessful, but they bore witness to the piety 
and bravery of the king. From his time the power of the 
French monarchy increased until the beginning of the long 
and disastrous war with England (1337). 

Philip IV. of France (1285-1314).— I'liilip I^., surnamed 
the Fair, was another able prince of the Capetian line. The 
means by which he exalted the royal authority were unscrupu- 
lous but very effective. To meet the expenses of his army, 
he resorted to the imposition of burdensome taxes and to extor- 
tions from the Jcavs. His attempt to compel the church to 
contribute its share to the revenues of the crown involved him 
in that struggle with Pope Boniface VIIL which, as we have 
seen, resulted in the humiliation of the latter. This struggle 
is important as the occasion of the summoning at Paris of the 
barons, clergy, and representatives of the cities, to sustain 
the king in his resistance to the papal demands. This was 
the first meeting of the States-General, a body famous in 
French history. Philip was sustained by the States -General 



312 GENERAL HISTORY 

in his opposition to the pope, and the papacy now entered on 
that period of subordination to the Erench throne wliich is 
known as the period of Babylonian captivity. In 1309 the 
j)apal see was removed to Avignon on the borders of France. 

Another important event of the reign was the suppression 
of the Knights Templars, who were arrested on charges of 
immorality and impiety and put to death in large numbers. 
This was an act of gross injustice on Philip's part, but it 
greatly strengthened the royal joower. 

The Disputed Succession. — Two years after the death of 
Philip the Fair a law was passed decreeing that no females 
should succeed to the throne. In 1328 the direct male line of 
the Capets became extinct, and the throne was claimed by 
Philix^ VI., the cousin of the last king. Edward III. of Eng- 
land, however, disputed this claim on the ground of a more 
direct descent, his mother being a sister of the last king.^ The 
French took their stand on the so-called Salic law, by which 
the title could not be transmitted through a female. Such was 
the origin of the Hundred Years' War, which, beginning in 
1337, lasted, with several long intervals of peace, down to the 
year 1453. ' 

The House of Valois. — Philip VI. ascended the throne in 
1328. He was the first of the Valois dynasty,^ which ruled 

1 Descent of Edward III. and Philip VI. 

Philip III. (1270-1285). 
I 

Philip IV. (1285-1314). Charles, Count of 

I Valois (d. 1325), 

1 i 1 m. (1) Margaret 

Isabel, m. Edward II. Philip V. Charles IV. of Naples. 

of England. (1316-1322). (1322-1328). ,.,.'.. 

I Philip VI. 

Edward III. of England. (1328-1350). 

2 Philip VI., 1328. Louis XI., 1461. Francis II., 1559. 
John 11. , 1350. Charles VIII., 1483. Charles IX., 1560. 
Charles V., 1364. Louis XII., 1498. Henry IIL, 1574. 
Charles VL, 1380. Francis I., 1515. 

Charles VII., 1422. Henry II., 1547. 



FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 313 

France for more than two centuries and a half, that is, from 
1328 to the assassination of Henry III. in 1589. 

The Hundred Years' War. — We have seen that in the first 
period of the war, in the reign of Edward III. of England, 
success was wholly on the English side, that two great vic- 
tories were won, at Crecy and Poitiers, that Calais was cap- 
tured by the English, and that in the Treaty of Bretigny 
(1360), while Edward renounced his claim to the French 
crown, he retained full sovereignty over the province of Aqui- 
taine. Upon the renewal of the war, however, in the reign 
of Charles V. (1364-1380), the French were successful. A 
large part of Aquitaine was reconquered, and the English 
were driven out of Brittany. At the time of Edward III.'s 
death in 1377 tlie French had regained most of the English 
conquests. 

Joan of Arc. — The next period of the war was that in which 
the brave and skillful English king, Henry V., won the battle 
of Agincourt (1415), and by the Treaty of Troyes (1420) secured 
the succession to the French throne on the death of Charles VI. 
Henry and Cha.rles, however, died in the same year (1422), 
and Charles VII. was proclaimed king of France, while the 
son of Henry V., Henry VL, succeeded him on the throne of 
England. The condition of France seemed hopeless at this 
time. Almost the entire country was in the hands of the Eng- 
lish and their allies. At this crisis France was rescued by 
Joan of Arc, who, fancying that she was divinely chosen for 
the mission of freeing her country, secured a commission from 
the king, joined the French army, and, inspiring the troops 
with courage, won victory after victory over the English. She 
had delivered France, but was ill supported by her country- 
men, who allowed her to be taken prisoner by the Burgundians. 
The latter gave her up to the English, by whom, after suffering 
many insults, she was condemned as a witch and burned at the 
stake at Eouen, 1431. 

The Expulsion of the English. —One thing which had con- 
tributed greatly to the English cause was the alliance with the 



314 GENERAL HISTORY 

Duke of Burgundy, the most powerful vassal of the French 
king, but in 1435 the Burgundians returned to the side of the 
French monarchy. In the closing period of the war the pre- 
ponderance of military skill lay with the French, whose 
general, Dunois, is regarded as one of the greatest military 
leaders of the age. Charles VII. regained his lost provinces 
one by one, and by the year 1453 the only important place 
retained by the English was Calais. Thus the long conflict 
arising over the English claims on French territory came to 
an end. Its effect was to render France almost a desert. But 
though left in a condition of great poverty and distress, she 
had won her freedom. In the period that followed, feudalism 
disappeared, the absolute monarchy was established, and 
France 'became a strong national state. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

FpwVXce in the Middle Ages. — The Capetian Dynasty : Hugh Capet. — 
Philip Augustus of France : The Albigenses. — Louis IX. of France. 
— Philip IV. of France: His Government. Summoning of the 
States-General. Suppression of the Knights Templars. The Occa- 
sion of the Hundred Years' War. — The House of Valois. — The 
Hundred Years' War. —Joan of Arc. — The Expulsion of the English. 



CHAPTER XL 

GERMANY AND ITALY 

The Saxon Line of Emperors. —We have seen that the Caro- 
lingian line became extinct in Germany on the death of Louis 
the Child in 911. The great dukes now chose as king Conrad 
of Franconia, who reigned till 919. He was succeeded by 
Henry L, surnamed the Fowler, who was the first of the 
Saxon line of emperors which ruled Germany for over a hun- 
dred years (919-1024). 



GERMANY AND ITALY 



315 



Henry I. (919-936). — This prince was one of the ablest 
of the German kings. He re-annexed Lorraine to his king- 
dom, and strengthened his frontiers against outside foes. 
Of these foes the most dangerous were the Hungarians, whose 
incursions were a constant menace to his people. In order to 
withstand their attacks Henry built fortresses throughout the 
kingdom and placed within them provisions for the support 
of his troops. Many of the oldest and most famous German 
towns sprang up around these fortresses. At last the Hun- 
garians came in great numbers, but after a hard struggle Henry 
put them to rout in the battle of Merseburg in 933. He also 
conquered the troublesome Slavs on his frontier and held back 
the still uncivilized Danes. 

The Restoration of the Roman Empire (962). — Otto I. (936- 
973) used with good results the authority which he inherited 
from his father. He enforced the submission of the great 
dukes and made himself supreme in Germany. He, too, won 
victories over the Hungarians and Slavs, and soon caused him- 
self to be regarded as the greatest monarch in Europe. It was 
his aim to make himself a second Charlemagne and become in 
reality the emperor of the western 
world. He interfered in Italy, 
which had long been in a con- 
dition of anarchy, and caused 
himself to be proclaimed king of 
the Lombards. In 962 he was 
crowned emperor by the pope. 
This event is known as the resto- 
ration of the Holy Roman Emj)ire 
of the German Nation, — an em- 
pire which existed in theory rather 
than in fact, for it comprised 

hardly more than Germany and Italy; yet it was a deep-rooted 
belief in the Middle Ages that the old Roman Empire was still 
standing, g,nd that its rulers were the highest secular repre- 
sentatives of divine power in the world. The effect was bad 




The German Imperial Crown 
(Now in the Treasury at Vienna) 



316 GENERAL HISTORY 

for Italy and for Germany, since it bound them in an un- 
natural union, which drew the attention of German rulers 
away from their domestic affairs and retarded the development 
of their own country, while it made Italy the scene of frequent 
wars. 

Later Saxon Emperors. — Otto II. 's reign (973-983) was a 
good illustration of the effects of this new German policy. He 
neglected German affairs and devoted himself to a vain attempt 
to make good his claims to all of Italy. Otto III. (983-1002) 
was consumed by the ambition of buihling up a great world 
empire, and throughout his reign he, too, gave most of his 
attention to Italy. In the reign of Henry II. (1002-1024) the 
power of the great dukes increased, and Germany was ravaged 
by internal wars. 

The Franconian Line. — With the election of Conrad II. of 
Franconia in 1024, the Franconian house began to rule Ger- 
many. This also lasted for over one hundred years, that is, 
to 1125. Conrad II. did his best to restore order to his king- 
dom and repress the power of the nobles. The cities sided 
with him, but his reign did not last long enough to produce 
permanent results, and the lawlessness incident to the feudal 
constitution of Germany still continued. In the reign of 
Henry III (1039-1056) an attempt was made to check private 
warfare by the so-called Truce of God. This forbade the carry- 
ing on of private war between sunset on Wednesday and sun- 
rise on Monday, and it did something toward checking the 
violence of the times. The main events of the reign of 
Henry IV. (1056-1106) have been outlined in the account of 
his quarrel with Gregory VII. (Ilildebrand), — the so-called 
War of Investitures. The main interest of the reign of 
Henry V. (1106-1125) centers in the continuance of this strug- 
gle, which came to a pause in the Concordat of Worms (1122), 
already described. After the short reign of Lothair of Saxony 
(1125-1137), the German throne was occupied by the Hohen- 
staufens, one of the strongest dynasties in the history of the 
empire. 



GERMANY AND ITALY 317 

The Hohenstaufen House. — On the death of Lothair, Con- 
rad III. (1137-1152) was chosen. His election angered Henry 
the Proud, of the house of Welf or Guelph, the strongest of 
the German princes. The latter's son, Henry the Lion, con- 
tinued the quarrel, and thus originated the long strife between 
the Guelphs and Ghib'ellines, the latter term being an Italian 
corruption of tlie name of the native city of the Hohenstaufens. 
The Guelph faction became in after years the supporters of 
the popes, so that in the course of time the names Guelphs 
and Ghibellin.es lost their old significance and indicated re- 
spectivel}' those who stood by the popes and those who upheld 
the emperors. 

Frederick I. (Barbarossa), who ruled from 1152 to 1190, 
was one of the greatest princes of the Hohenstaufen line. 
His aim was to restore the empire to its former strength and 
dignity. He was stern in the repression of private war and 
made himself a real king in Germany. His quarrels with 
the pope and with the Italian cities ended, as we have seen, 
in failure, but this was no fault of his, for he was attempting 
the impossible. It was too late in the history of the world to 
bring back the absolute x^ower of the Roman emperors. The 
German dukes were jealous of his power, and among his ene- 
mies at home was Henry the Lion, the most powerful of his 
vassals. Frederick was obliged in the end to submit to the 
pope, and to grant virtual independence to the Italian cities. 
His failure in the Third Crusade, and his accidental death, 
by drowning while attempting to cross a stream in Asia 
Minor (1190), have already been described. Henry VI. 
(1190-1197), though a man of vigorous mind, was equally un- 
successful in his attempt to enforce the imperial authority 
over Italy; and Otto IV. (1198-1214), when he ventured to 
break certain pledges which he had made to the pope, and 
to assert the old imperial power, was deposed by Innocent 
IIL 

Frederick II. (1214-1250). — This prince is the most brilliant 
figure in the history of the later Middle Ages. In many points 



318 GENERAL HISTORY 

his ideas were far in advance of his time. He was well versed 
in languages and in science, was a skillful diplomat, an able 
general, and a patron of scholars. Somewhat skeptical in 
spirit, he cared little for ecclesiastical authority, and his atti- 
tude toward heresy and unbelief showed little of the intoler- 
ance which characterized the age. Enough has already been 
said in regard to his expedition to the Holy Land. His suc- 
cess there did not win him the favor of the pope, and on his 
return the papal and imperial parties engaged in war. During 
his reign there was the most violent strife between the Guelphs 
and Ghibellines. Frederick was unable to enforce the imperial 
authority over the Lombard cities, who were supported by the 
pope. Affairs in Germany were badly managed, and the coun- 
try was disturbed by civil war. Frederick made his residence 
at Palermo in Sicily, which became a center of learning and 
art. There he gathered about him literary men and scholars 
from all parts of the world, and so brilliant was the intel- 
lectual life of his court, that some would date from his reign 
the beginning of the great movement known as the Renaissance, 
or Revival of Learning. 

The Interregnum. — Frederick's death in 1250 was followed 
by a period of confusion known as the interregnum, during 
which the great vassals of the empire set the imperial author- 
ity at defiance and governed or misgoverned about as they 
pleased. In 1273, however, Rudolph I. was chosen king of 
Germany. He was a member of the house of Hapsburg, 
or Austrian line, which is ruling to this day on the Aus- 
trian throne. After him came a period during which the 
emperors were chosen from different houses. Their power 
was greatly reduced, and Germany was in a condition of 
anarchy. 

The Golden Bull (1356). — One of the most important events 
of this period was the grant of a charter called the Golden 
Bull, in the reign of Charles IV. (1347-1378). This fixed 
definitely the persons who should have the right of electing 
the emperor. This right was vested in seven electors, namely. 



GERMANY AND ITALY 319 

the Arclibisliops of Mainz, Cologne, and Treves, the Duke of 
Saxony, the King of Bohemia, the Margrave of Brandenburg, 
and the Count Pahxtine of the Bhine. 

Switzerland. — Another important event was the movement 
for Swiss independence. Switzerland had nominally been a 
part of the German Empire since 1033. The Hapsburg or 
Austrian counts claimed jurisdiction over it, but the Swiss 
were too unruly and liberty-loving to tolerate interference 
with what they regarded as their rights. Their cities grew 
in wealth and gained the right of self-government. The 
mountain cantons, or districts, being remote and inaccessible, 
were especially independent in spirit. After Budolph of 
Hapsburg died, these cantons formed a league to resist the 
oppression of the Austrians. In their war of independence 
the Swiss showed great heroism. In 1315, in the battle of 
Morgarten, they routed a superior force of Austrians, and 
about seventy years later gained another great victory over 
the Austrians at Sempach (1386). These battles, followed in 
1388 by another victory at Nafels, gained for them their vir- 
tual independence. 

The Hapsburgs. — From the time of Albert 11. (1438) the 
Hapsburg or Austrian house occupied the imperial throne ; 
for, although the monarchy was elective, the electors always 
chose a member of this family. The long reign of Frederick III. 
(1440-1493), the successor of Albert II., marks the transition 
from the Middle Ages to the beginning of the modern period. 

The Normans in Italy. — Early in the eleventh century bands 
of i^orman adventurers began to try their fortunes in south- 
ern Italy. There they fought against the Saracens and the 
Greeks and succeeded in making themselves masters of the 
province of Apulia. Their most noted chieftains were Eobert 
Guiscard and his brother Koger. In 1059 Robert Guiscard 
was acknowledged by the pope as duke of Apulia, Calabria, 
and Sicily. Sicily and a part of Calabria were not yet con- 
quered, but before the close of the eleventh century the ISTor- 
man power was established in Sicily and southern Italy, 



320 



GENERAL HISTORY 



which were united in a single cluchy and formed the basis of 
the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 

The Italian Cities. — That the Italian cities should be able 

successfully to oppose Frederick 
Barbarossa, the most powerful 
prince in Christendom, and force 
him to acknowledge their liberties 
in the treaty of Constance (1183), 
is proof that already in the twelfth 
century they had reached a posi- 
tion of wealth and power. The 
most famous of the Italian repub- 
lics were Venice and Florence. 
The early importance of Venice 
arose from her favorable position 
for commerce. She was already 
an active trading city at the time 
of the crusades, and these move- 
ments aided her by calling into 
use her ships for the purpose of 
transporting the crusaders. Be- 
sides the money which she derived 
from this transport service, she turned the voyages to good 
account by bringing back the products of the East. A 
great Eastern trade developed, especially after the establish- 
ment of the Latin empire at Constantinople (1204), of which 
Venice possessed a large share. She owned land on the eastern 
coast of the Adriatic, and in the Italian peninsula she extended 
her sway over a considerable part of Lombardy. Her govern- 
ment was in the hands of a doge or chief magistrate, who with 
other executive officers was appointed by a great council; but 
her constitution underwent many changes, and finally she fell 
under the control of an oligarchy. At the period of her great- 
est power she took rank as an important European state, with 
whom the other governments of Europe had to reckon. In 
the sixteenth century, however, her power began to decline. 




Costume of a JJouk 



GERMANY AND ITALY 321 

Florence was especially distinguished for her manufactures. 
She became the most important industrial city in Europe. 
The most brilliant period of her history was the time of the 
Med'ici family, of whom the most noted members were Cosmo 
and Lorenzo. The government was republican in form, and 
both these men were nominally ruling under the constitutional 
restrictions, but all real power in the state was in their hands. 
Lorenzo is specially noted for his patronage of art and litera- 
ture, and many of the masterpieces of Italian art belong to 
this period. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Germany and Italy. — The Saxon Line of Emperors. — Henry I. — 
The Restoration of the Roman Empire: Otto I. — Later Saxon 
Emperors : Otto II. Otto III. Henry II. — The Franconian Line : 
Conrad II. Henry III. Henry IV. Henry V. Lothair of Saxony. 

— The Hohenstaufen House : Conrad III. Guelphs and Ghibellines. 
Frederick I. — Frederick II. — The Interregnum. — The Golden 
Bull. — Switzerland: Her War of Independence. — The Hapsburgs. 

— The Italian Cities : Venice. Florence. 




322 



MODERN HISTORY 

CHAPTER XLI 

INTRODUCTION 

Beginning of the Modern Period. — Some writers take the 
year 1453 as the dividing line between the Middle Ages and 
modern times ; others take 1492. The truth is, it is a mistake 
to assign an exact date for the beginning of modern history, 
because the transition from the old era to the new was not 
sudden, but gradual. The date 1453, marking the capture of 
Constantinople by the Turks, and the overthrow of the empire 
in the East, is convenient because it is also associated with 
the emancipation of France from English control, and the 
revival of learning. The second date, 1492, is associated with 
that great movement of western discovery which was started 
successfully by Columbus in that year. 

As an aid to memory, we may reckon the new era from 
either of these dates, yet we must not forget that the more 
correct dividing line between mediaeval and modern times is 
to be found in the appearance of several features or character- 
istics in the fifteenth century which were entirely different 
from anything that existed during the thousand years imme- 
diately preceding. 

Characteristics of the Transition. — These are, first, the Ee- 
vival of Learning, or Renaissance, which not only gave a great 
impulse to the study of literature, art, and science, but, by 
awakening the activity of men's minds, led to religious doubt, 
and brought on the great movement called the Protestant 
Reformation. Second, closely connected with this revival of 

323 



324 



GENERAL HISTORY 



learning, was a spirit of enterprise, which showed itself in the 
most heroic and persistent efforts to discover and colonize new 
lands. Third, in political matters there was as great a revolu- 
tion as in matters of learning and commercial enterprise, for on 

the ruins of feudalism, 
which was characterized 
by disorganization and 
the tyranny of petty 
chiefs, there rose great 
monarchies, whose rulers 
were supreme over no- 
bles and peasants alike. 
This difference is, in fact, 
so marked that many re- 
gard the rise of the ab- 
solute monarchy as the 
peculiar feature of the 
early modern age. 

Rise of Modern Nations. 
— It seems strange to us, 
at first thought, that the 
liberty of the people 
should have been ad- 
vanced by the building- 
up of despotisms, but 
in reality it was sup- 
planting the despotism of many petty tyrants by the despotism 
of one man; and the advantage is summed up in the say- 
ing of an old writer, " Better the rule of one lion than that 
of a hundred rats." Moreover, along with the growth of 
the absolute kingship went the development of the national 
state. The people of one race became conscious of their com- 
mon kindred and common aims. A broader patriotism than 
the love of a city or a little principality arose in their minds, 
and the way was paved for the formation of the great nations 
which we see in Eurox:)e to-day. 




An Eaklv Printing Press 



THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY 325 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Introduction, — Beginning of the Modern Period : Date of the Begin- 
ning of Modern Period. — Characteristics of the Transition: Revival 
of Learning. Protestant Reformation. Discovery and Colonization. 
Dow^nfall of Feudalism. — Rise of Modern Nations. 



CHAPTER XLII 

THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY 

Mediaeval Knowledge of Geography. — During the Middle 
Ages it was the popular belief that the earth was flat. Scholars 
knew better, for the theory that the earth is round was held by 
the ancients and had never been wholly forgotten. Yet educated 
men even toward the close of the fifteenth century believed it 
impossible to make any practical use of the fact. There is 
a familiar story that the learned men of Spain on hearing of 
Columbus's plan to sail around the world asked contemptuously 
how people could walk head downwards on the other side of 
the earth, and how it would be possible for him to climb again 
the convex surface of the globe. Before the fifteenth century, 
however, travelers had visited the remote countries of the East. 
The crusades had greatly stimulated the spirit of discovery, 
and toward the close of the thirteenth and during the four- 
teenth centuries extensive explorations were undertaken. 
Marco Polo, who died in 1324, visited the court of the Em- 
peror of China, and Sir John Mandeville (born about 1300) 
published a marvelous account of Eastern travel. Another 
result of the crusades was the opening up of commerce between 
the Italian cities and the East, and this, too, had added 
greatly to European knowledge of the geography of the Orient. 
Goods from India were brought by various overland routes to 
the Mohammedan countries on the eastern and southern shores 
Colby's GEN. HIST. — 21 



326 GENERAL HISTORY 

of the Mediterranean, where they Avere exchanged with the 
Italian merchants for the products of the West. But the 
Mohammedans were not always friendly, and toward the end 
of the fifteenth century almost the only secure route open to 
the Indian trade lay through Egypt. 

Early Portuguese Discoveries. — Surrounded on three sides 
by the powerful kingdom of Spain, the Portuguese saw the 
only chance of extending their territory in the establishment 
of a colonial empire beyond seas. They accordingly began to 
send out expeditions early in the fifteenth century. In 1410 
they discovered the island of Madeira. A few years later the 
direction of these enterprises was undertaken by the great Don 
Henry, famous in history as Henry the Navigator, who devoted 
his whole life to the work. The pope granted him (1432) the 
right of conquest over all the lands that he should discover. 
Don Henry died in 1463, but he had seen his Portuguese 
sailors work their way gradually down the western coast of 
Africa, each expedition penetrating a little farther than the 
one before. Cape Verde was passed in 1445, and Sierra Leone 
was reached in 1462. The impulse that Don Henry had given 
to discovery continued for many years after his death. The 
equator was passed in 1471, and in 1486 Bartholomew Dias 
sailed around the southern point of Africa, and on his return 
saw the cape which is called the Cape of Good Hope. Thus 
while other European countries had done little or nothing 
toward discovery, Portugal had traversed the whole length of 
the west African coast, reaching a point from which the way 
was clear to India. 

The Discovery of America (1492). — The great motive that 
actuated the navigators of the fifteenth century was the dis- 
covery of an ocean route to India. That done, commerce might 
take that course instead of passing overland through the 
countries of hostile infidels bordering the Mediterranean. The 
Portuguese had sought this route by the east around Africa. 
Christopher Columbus was the first to seek it by the west. 

Columbus. — Columbus was a native of Gen'oa, a city famous 



THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY 



327 



for maritime enterprise. He had pondered the plan of an ocean 
voyage to India for many years. The Italian Toscanelli, a 
famous astronomer, had written to him as early as 1474, point- 
ing out the possibility of reaching India by sailing directly 
westward, and Columbus finally determined on this course. He 
proposed his plan successively to John II. of Portugal, to the 
government of Genoa, and to Henry VII. of England, but in 
each case met with a refusal. He also approached Ferdinand 
and Isabella of Spain and at first fared no better, for these rulers 
were then too busy with the 
war against Grana'da to pay 
attention to anything else. 
But when this city had 
fallen (1492), they were free 
to listen to him. At last 
Isabella was won over, she 
furnished him with three 
small vessels, the Nina, the 
Pinta, and the Santa Maria, 
and appointed him viceroy 
over all the lands that he 
should discover. 

He set sail on August 3, 1492, and sighted land on Octo- 
ber 12. It was one of the Bahama islands, and Columbus gave 
it the name of San Sal'vador. Soon after he discovered the 
islands of Cuba and Haiti, but did not in this expedition reach 
the mainland. In a second voyage (1493) he discovered Ja- 
maica and the Lesser Antilles ; in a third (1498) he reached 
the mainland of South America at the mouth of the Orinoco ; 
and in a fourth (1502) he explored the coast of Central Amer- 
ica. He was received with the highest honors on his return 
from the first voyage. After the second he was welcomed with 
less enthusiasm, for it was expected that he would return 
with the riches of the East, and he came back empty-handed. 
The third and fourth voyages brought only disappointment. 
Columbus died in 1506, neglected by the court, and with none 




The Santa Maria 



328 GENERAL HISTORY 

of his hopes realized. To the end of his life he believed that 
he had found the eastern coast of India, never dreaming of the 
existence of an intermediate continent. It was this belief 
that led him to give the name Indies to the islands that he 
discovered, and Indians to the inhabitants — names which are 
still employed. Thus he did not have the honor of giving his 
name to the New World. The name America was bestowed 
in honor of Amerigo Vespucci (Americus Vespucius), who 
voyaged to the coast of South America in 1497 or 1499, find- 
ing what was first recognized as a New Continent. 

North America. — Three races lay claim to the discovery of 
North America at a date much earlier than the period of which 
we are writing. These are the Chinese, the Welsh, and the 
Norsemen, of whom only the last seem now to be generally 
regarded as having a legitimate title to the honor. At the 
beginning of the eleventh century Leif Ericson, a Norse sailor, 
reached the coast of what is now New England, and the Norse 
gave the name Vinland to the newly discovered land, but fur- 
ther than this Ave have no positive knowledge of European 
discovery in America before the fifteenth century. The Norse- 
men's visit to the New World left no permanent trace, except 
a vague tradition that somewhere in the western ocean there 
was a strange, new country — a tradition that possibly influ- 
enced later navigators. The first of the fifteenth century voy- 
agers to reach the northern continent of America was John 
Cabot, a Venetian sailor in the service of England, who dis- 
covered the coast near Newfoundland in 1497, while attempt- 
ing to find his way to China. Between this date and 1501, 
John Cabot and his son Sebastian, and the Portuguese Corte- 
real', explored the eastern coast from Salvador to Labrador. 

The First Circumnavigation of the Earth. — In 1513, Balboa, 
a Spaniard, having crossed the Isthmus of Panama, was the 
first European to catch sight of the Pacific Ocean. It was 
clear enough now that the continent of America once passed, a 
water route toward India by the west lay open to the voyager. 
Magellan, in 1519, undertook the daring enterprise of sailing 



THE PERIOD OP DISCOVERY 329 

around the entire world. Setting out from Spain in that year, 
he sailed southward along South America, passed through the 
straits that bear his name (1520), and in March, 1521, reached 
the Philippines, on the other side of the Pacific. He was 
killed by the natives, but his followers continued the journey 
to the Moluccas, and thence by the way of the Cape of Good 
Hope to Spain, completing the circuit of the globe in a little 
more than three years. This is justly regarded as one of the 
greatest feats in the history of maritime enterprise. 

Conquest of Mexico. — In the meanwhile Spain had begun to 
conquer and colonize the New World. In 1519, Hernando 
Cortez, with some 700 followers, landed in Mexico, and sink- 
ing his ships to cut off all hope of retreat, marched into the 
interior and established himself in the capital city of Mexico. 
The land was under the rule of the powerful and partially 
civilized Aztecs, whom Cortez at first overawed, but who soon 
rebelled, and compelled him to retreat. Cortez was skillful 
and brave, but unscrupulous and cruel. He forced the natives 
into an alliance with him, captured Mexico, and assumed the rule 
of the whole country in the name of the king of Spain. In two 
years he had added a vast empire to the dominions of Charles 
v., but that prince was too much taken up with other matters 
to appreciate- what had been done. Cortez was treated coldly 
after his return to Spain, and died neglected by the court. 

Conquest of Peru. — Two other Spanish adventurers, Pi- 
zarro and Almagro, conquered Peru (1529-35). Success was 
easier than in Mexico, for the Incas, the Peruvian rulers, were 
less vigorous and warlike than the Aztecs. In fact, the Span- 
iards had less to fear from war with the natives than from 
their own quarrels over the division of the spoils, of which 
there was plenty. Almagro was beheaded, and Pizarro assas- 
sinated. Fraud and cruelty had marked their conquest, but 
it was none the less complete. By 1546, the Spanish power 
was firmly fixed in Peru and in Chile. 

Portuguese Colonies. — Spain looking for a western route to 
India had unexpectedly stumbled on a new continent, which 



330 GENERAL HISTORY 

she soon saw offered better prospects for colonization and trade 
than the more distant goal she Av^as seeking. Portugal in the 
meanwhile was still pushing eastward on the route around the 
Cape of Good Hope, In 1497, eleven years after Bartholomew 
Dias sighted this cape, Vasco da Gama rounded it with four 
small ships, passed along the eastern coast of Africa, crossed 
the Indian Ocean, and landed at Calicut. Discovery was 
followed by colonization, and a succession of daring and skill- 
ful adventurers founded the Portuguese empire in India. 
Alvares Cabral, who while trying to reach India was blown 
across the seas to the shores of Brazil, afterwards established 
in Calicut the first European fort in India. Almeida was 
the first Portuguese viceroy, but the greatest name of all is 
that of Albuquer'que, who closed up the old routes of the 
Mohammedans and the Venetians, and gained for his country 
a monopoly of the Indian trade. He was the real founder of 
the Portuguese colonial empire in India. By the year 1550 
Portugal held all the important points on the Atlantic coast 
from Lisbon to the Cape of Good Hope, thence along the 
eastern coast of Africa and the shores of the Indian Ocean to 
Hindustan — and from there on to the Moluccas. 

The Colonies. — Spain and Portugal adopted different methods 
in dealing with their colonists. Portugal gave the governors 
absolute power over the colonies, but allowed them only a short 
term of office. The result of this was misrule and corruption ; 
for each governor, knowing that he had but a short time in 
which to enrich himself, made use of it by plundering the 
natives as much as possible. Another characteristic of the 
Portuguese colonies was that they were merely stations or 
factories for trade with the natives. There was no attempt to 
develop the agricultural or mining resources of the country. 
It naturally resulted that the colonies soon declined, and 
Portugal, who was the first in the field of discovery and settle- 
ment, fell behind the other great colonizing nations. 

Spain, on the other hand, did not invest the governors with 
absolute power, but created different grades of authorities, all 



THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY 331 

under the Council of the Indies, which was established by Fer- 
dinand ill 1511. Moreover, Spain did not confine her colonies 
to the office of mere markets for the exchange of native goods, 
but encouraged them to work mines. Sixain's colonies 'accord- 
ingly were as a rule more prosperous. Both Spain and Portugal, 
however, pursued a narrow policy. The colonists were forbid- 
den to cultivate European products on native soil. They were 
to trade only in what the home country needed, and their trade 
was monopolized by the home merchants. A few houses in 
Seville controlled almost the entire trade with the Spanish- 
American colonies. 

Treatment of the Natives. — Along with conquest went 
missionary work, but it was not an easy task to convert the 
natives, who naturally were little attracted to the creed of 
those who conquered and oppressed them. It is told of them 
that on learning that there were to be Spaniards in heaven 
they declared they did not wish to go there. The extraordinary 
zeal and activity of the Jesuits at length made Christianity 
prevail both in the Spanish and the Portuguese colonies. St. 
Francis Xavier alone is said to have made 3000 converts. By 
the middle of the sixteenth century these Jesuit missionaries 
had penetrated most of the new lands. They taught as well 
as preached, founding universities at Lima and Mexico, and 
establishing schools in all parts of the country. All these 
lands were gained for the Roman Catholic faith, but religion 
was disgraced by intolerance and persecution. The Inquisition 
was more active here than in the Old World. 

The Spaniards made slaves of the Indians at first. The 
island of Haiti, then known as Hispaniola, is said to- have 
decreased in population from 1,000,000 in 1492 to 14,000, about 
twenty years later. This is doubtless an exaggeration, but the 
evil was so great that the better class of Spaniards finally 
opposed it. The good Las Casas, a bishop in Mexico, worked 
steadily for many years to suppress this slave traffic. It was 
suppressed, but only to give place to another form still worse. 
What the Indians escaped the Africans were called upon to 



332 GENERAL HISTORY 

suffer. Charles V. gave the monopoly of the African slave 
trade to one of his favorites, who sold it to the Genoese. Thus 
began that traffic in negroes which continued almost to our 
own time. 

Effects of the Discoveries. — A very early result of the dis- 
coveries was a complete change in the course of European 
commerce. Instead of being conducted chiefly by land it now 
took a sea route. As a consequence of this, cities formerly 
important from their situation on lines of trade now ceased to 
be so. New trading centers arose, chiefly on the coast. Not 
only was the course of commerce changed, but new commercial 
races took the place of the old. The peoples on the Atlantic 
usurped the position formerly held by the cities on the Medi- 
terranean. The Italians were supplanted by the Portuguese 
and the Spaniards, and later by the Dutch and the English. 
There was a vast increase of wealth. A great mass of gold 
and silver came to Europe from the mines of Peru and Mexico. 
Money became more plentiful, making it easier for men to 
carry on trade. A period of great commercial activity now 
began. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Period of Discovert. — Mediaeval Knowledge of Geography : 
Early Voyages, Effect of the Crusades. Trade with the East. — 
Early Portuguese Discoveries : Discovery of Madeira. Henry the 
Navigator. African Discoveries. — The Discovery of America. — 
Columbus: His Four Voyages. — North America: Early Discover- 
ies. The Norsemen. John and Sebastian Cabot. — The First Cir- 
cumnavigation of the Earth : Magellan. — Conquest of Mexico : Cor- 
tez. — Conquest of Peru : Pizarro. — Portuguese Colonies : India. 
Brazil. Extent of Portuguese Settlements in 1550. — The Colonies : 
Contrast between Spain's and Portugal's Policy toward their Colo- 
nists. — Treatment of the Natives: Missionary Work. Slavery. — 
Effects of the Discoveries. 



CHAPTER XLIII 

THE RISE OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHIES 
I. England 

England in the Fifteenth Century. — After the death of Henry 
v., whose reign had been marked by good government at 
home and by such success in France that the French king 
was reduced to the position of a petty prince in his own domin- 
ions, Henry VI., a child only nine months old, succeeded to 
the throne in 1422. 

War of the Roses. — His reign was the very reverse of his 
predecessor's. France, under the leadership of Joan of Arc, 
freed herself from the English rule. Jack Cade led a revolt 
of the peasants, which, though soon put down, caused much 
bloodshed and loss of property. Worse than this, the country 
was torn by civil war ; for the weakness of the king incited 
the attacks of the nobles, who found a good occasion in the 
claims of Richard, duke of York, to the throne. His claim 
rested on the ground that he was the descendant of Lionel, 
the third son of Edward III., while Henry VI. descended 
from John of Gaunt, the fourth son of Edward. In the first 
battle of St. Albans (1455) the Duke of York was victorious, 
and, the king being seized with a fit of insanity, York became 
Protector. He did not long retain his power, however; for 
Queen Margaret refused to submit, and won the battle of 
Wakefield (1460), in which York Avas killed. The latter's 
claim descended to his son Edward, who won the battle of 
Mortimer's Cross, and though the Yorkists were afterwards 
defeated at St. Albans, he routed the Queen's forces at Tow- 
ton, and was crowned king. 

Tn these changes of fortune the Earl of Warwick, called the 
'king maker,' had played an important part. He was by 
far the most powerful of the barons, having, it is said, over 
30,000 retainers. It was through his aid that Edward came 

333 



334 



GENERAL HISTORY 



to the throne; and, thinking that he woukl succeed as well in 
pulling down as in setting up a king, Warwick, who was 
dissatisfied with Edward's government, rose against him in 
1470. At first he was successful. Edward IV. was driven 
out, and Henry VI. restored. But Edward returned in tlie 
following spring, defeated and killed Warwick at Barnet, won 
another battle at Tewkesbury, and threw Henry VI. into the 
Tower, where he was soon afterwards murdered. 




TiiK TowKR UK London 

Such was the War of the Roses, so called from the badges 
worn by the opposing parties, — that of the Lancastrians, or 
King Henry's party, being a red rose, and that of the Vorkists 
a white one. 

Effect of the War. — Strange to say, this civil war did com- 
paratively little damage to the general population. Trade 
and industry went on as usual. The chief sufferers were the 
nobles and their retainers. The result was that, while the 
peasantry and the artisan class were left to prosper in peace, 
the nobles were greatly diminished in numbers, and broken in 
fortune. Thus there was a chance for a strong ruler to govern 
in a more despotic way than ever before, for hitherto the main 



THE RISE OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHIES 335 

restraint upon the king's power had been exerted by his great 
vassals. So it happened that the foundation of an absolute 
monarchy in England was laid in the years immediately fol- 
lowing the War of the Eoses. 

Edward IV. (1461-1483). —Edward IV. found little op- 
position from his Parliament, and ruled as an absolute 
king. His reign almost exactly coincides with that of Louis 
XL, who in the same way was laying the foundation of an 
absolute monarchy in Erance. Edward was not a wise or 
far-seeing ruler. He was self-indulgent and a spendthrift. 
His project for seizing part of the Erench king's territory, 
through an alliance with the Duke of Burgundy, was a failure, 
and in his home government he did nothing to gain for himself 
the favor of his subjects. He died in 1483, leaving the throne 
to his son Edward V., a boy of twelve years ; but the young 
king soon fell into the hands of his uncle Richard, Duke 
of Gloucester, who put him with his brother into the Tower, 
and became Protector. The murder of the young princes in 
the Tower — a crime of which Richard was suspected, and which 
has since been fastened upon him — removed all obstacles to 
his becoming king. In 1483 he was crowned as Richard III. 

Richard III. (1483-1485). — This king is described as a 
monster of cruelty, as hideous in appearance as he was base 
in character; but these accounts are probably the exaggera- 
tions of his enemies. He was a man of marked ability, 
and, for the day, of unusual cultivation. Before he came to 
the throne he had shown himself a patron of learning. But 
the unscrupulous means he used to. make himself king raised 
up many enemies, who stood in the way of his establishment 
of a strong government. The Duke of Richmond saw a 
chance in the unpopularity of the reigning king for the success 
of his own claims to the throne. He, too, was a descendant 
of John of Gaunt through the female line, which had married 
into the family of Tudor. He landed in England in 1485, 
and in the same year defeated and killed Richard III. in 
the battle of Bos worth. 



336 



GENERAL HISTORY 



Henry VII. (1485-1509). — Henry Tudor, who ascended the 
throne under the title of Henry VII., was of the house of Lancas- 
ter, but his marriage with Elizabeth of York, eldest daughter of 
Edward IV., united the two rival families and closed the long 
period of dynastic strife. The date of his accession is taken as 
the beginning of the modern period of English history. It also 
marks the beginning of the period of the absolute monarchy. 
Parliament met but once in the last thirteen years of Henry's 
reign, and the Tudor monarchs generally found little restraint on 
their power. Henry's method of building up the power of the 
throne was by the accumulation of wealth through fines, forced 
loans, and other unjust means, until he was able to rule inde- 
pendently of Parliament and to bequeath to his successor a 
greater treasure than any English king had before possessed. 
He seems to have been completely ruled by the passion of 

avarice. With him ambition took 
this form, and he cared little for 
national aggrandizement unless it 
could be made the means of get- 
ting money for himself. When 
insulted or aggrieved, he con- 
tinued to make a profit from his 
wrongs by exacting a money pay- 
ment. When Charles VIII. of 
France wished to annex Brittany 
to France, Henry allowed him to 
do so in return for a substantial 
indemnity, bat not before he had 
made Parliament vote him sup- 
plies on the pretense of war. 
Thus he made his enemies pay for 
peace and his friends for war. 

At home, Empson, Dudley, 
and Morton, the notorious instru- 
ments of the king's greed, devised all manner of schemes 
for enrichino- their master. Obsolete laws with excessive 




Crossbowman 
(Fifteenth Century) 



THE RISE OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHIES 337 

penalties were revived and enforced against those who had 
the means to pay the enormous fines. If a man lived on an 
expensive scale, he was taxed heavily on account of his evident 
wealth. If he lived meanly, he was taxed heavily on the ground 
that he was hoarding his treasure. The nobles, whose numbers 
had been greatly reduced by the War of the Roses, were re- 
pressed by various means, such as the law forbidding them to 
keep armed retainers, and the king's will was enforced by the 
arbitrary rulings of the court of Star Chamber, which became 
a most effective instrument of tyranny. By such unscrupulous 
but well-devised means the king made his will absolute. 

In many respects, however, he was a wise and discerning 
ruler, a thorough master of kingcraft, and his many vices left 
the kingdom at peace. The nobles, not the people, were the 
chief sufferers from his tyranny. 

II. France 

Charles VII. — The successful issue of the Hundred Years' 
War was not due to the king, but to the heroism of Joan of Arc, 
the military genius of Dunois, and above all to the people of 
France, who, feeling conscious of their nationality, had risen 
with one accord to drive out the foreigner. Charles was indo- 
lent and suspicious, and showed no ability as a ruler. The 
old nobility had almost disappeared at the close of the war, 
but the authority of the king was endangered by the rising 
power of several great houses related to the royal family. Of 
these the Burgundian dukes were the most important. The 
duchy of Burgundy on the east, whose ambitious rulers were 
constantly trying to extend its boundaries, threatened to be- 
come a rival of France as a European power. 

Louis XI. (1461-1483). — On the death of Charles VII. in 
1461, the task of unifying France and making royalty supreme 
fell to the lot of one of the ablest but most unprincipled kings 
that ever occupied the throne. Louis XI. was a cunning, far- 
sighted statesman, ready for any means, however foul, that 



338 



GENERAL HISTORY 



would serve his purpose of exalting the royal power. He pre- 
ferred to outwit his enemies rather than to tight them, but 
when fighting had to be done, he showed no lack of bravery 
or capacity. He held no promise binding, and gained his 
ends, wherever possible, by stealth, treachery, and deceit. 
On the other hand, many of his foes showed the same quali- 
ties, coupled Avith less ability, and the ends for which they 
were working were far worse for France, which, if they had 
had their way, would have remained weak and disunited. 

Louis XL and the Nobles. — His efforts to subdue the great 
lords led to the combination against him known as the League 
of the Common Weal. Louis was at first 
unsuccessful, but when peace returned he 
stirred up strife among his enemies, and 
by buying off one, while he plundered 
another, added greatly to the royal de- 
i-jamrsMMt.' >.r^ ^"^^^snes. 

I^^Wli.lpf Charles the Bold of Burgundy. — This 
\ ^T^ »^lh ^iiihitious but hot-headed prince soon 
^ ! •'! came into conflict with Louis, at whose 

expense he was trying to extend the boun- 
daries of his duchy. At one time it 
seemed as if Louis' cause were lost ; for, 
falling into the power of Charles, he was 
kept a prisoner until he had agreed to 
everything that the latter wished. But 
he afterwards repudiated the treaty, and 
finally forced the duke to accept more 
favorable terms. Charles now tried to 
extend his frontier eastward, with the design of building up a 
great European state with its capital at Nancy, but in this he 
had to reckon with the valor and independent spirit of the 
Swiss. In the battles of Granson (1476) and Morat (1477) the 
duke's forces were repulsed, and in another battle near Nancy, 
he was defeated and killed. By his death the most serious 
danger to the power of the French monarchy was removed. 




/'J 



m 



A French JSToble of the 
Fifteenth Century 



THE RISE OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHIES 



339 



Louis' Successes. — After the death of Charles the Bold a 
large part of his dominions were seized by Louis and incor- 
porated with France. Louis also gained Roussillon, Anjou, 
Maine, and Provence, and the territory of France was rounded 
out to the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean. Besides adding 
to his territories he strengthened his kingdom by centralizing 
the administration and improving the internal government. 
Despite the vices of his character, he did a good work for 
France, giving her a more stable and a better government. 
Feudalism was overthrown, and the period of the absolute 
monarchy began. 

III. Spain 

Spain under the Moors. — Throughout the Middle Ages the 
Moors, who, as we have seen, destroyed the Visigothic king- 
dom in 711 A.D., were the 
dominant power in Spain. 
The Cliristians, however, 
retained a part of north- 
ern Spain, and in that 
region arose several little 
kingdoms, which kept up 
a steady resistance against 
the Moors, and finally be- 
gan to make head against 
them. Of these little 
Christian states the chief 
were Castile, Leon, Ara- 
gon, and Navarre. Castile 
and Aragon were the most 
powerful of the four 
states, and they constantly 
extended their boundaries 
at the expense of their 

neighbors and of the Moors. As the latter declined, the Chris- 
tian states gained in power, but all the defects of feudalism 





F 


i 




B 


i 


eP 


bi 


fl 






1 



Interior of thk Alcazai; 



340 GENERAL HISTORY 

existed in their constitution. During tlie Middle Ages Spain 
was not only under a divided rule, but each of the Christian 
kingdoms was weakened by the lack of a central authority, 
the kingly name being held in small respect. 

Ferdinand and Isabella. — The beginning of the modern king- 
dom of Spain dates from the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon 
and Isabella of Castile and Leon in 1469; but they ruled their 
respective kingdoms independently, and the formal union of 
the two states was not effected till later. It was the object of 
both sovereigns to reduce the power of the nobles and render 
themselves absolute. In carrying out this purpose Ferdinand 
was especially skillful. He allied himself with the cities and 
strengthened the Holy Brotherhood, a military force main- 
tained by them, thus gaining a powerful weapon to be used 
against the nobles. The latter were stripped of many of tlieir 
privileges. Allying himself with the Holy See he used all the 
power of church and state to maintain the royal authority. 
In his reign the Inquisition was introduced in Spain. It was 
an extraordinary tribunal, established for the purpose of crush- 
ing out heresy. and infidelity, and was employed against the 
Jews and the Mohammedans with deadly effect. Thousands 
of unbelievers were put to death. But the Inquisition served 
another purpose as well. It was used by Ferdinand to bring 
both the clergy and nobles into complete submission to his 
will. 

The most famous event in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella 
was the discovery of America, described in another chapter. 
In the same year that Columbus started on his first voyage 
(1492), Granada, the last stronghold of the Moors in the 
peninsula, was captured by the Spanish sovereigns, and from 
that time a cruel persecution of the conquered race continued, 
until no Mohammedans were left in Spain. Ferdinand died 
in 1516, having fully accomplished his purpose of building up 
an absolute monarchy in Spain. In the period that followed 
Spain was the leading nation in Europe. 



THE EMPEROR CHARLES V. 341 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Rise of Absolute Moxarciiies. — England in the Fifteenth Cen- 
tury. — War of the Rost'S : lieign of Henry VI. Peasants' Revolt 
under Jack Cade. Civil War. Edward's Victories. The Earl of 
Warwick. — Effects of the War. — Edward IV. (1461-1483): His 
Absolute Power. The Murder of Edward V, and his Brother. — 
Richard HI. (1483-1485) : His Defeat by Henry Tudor on Bosworth 
Field. — Henry VH. (1485-1509) : His Character and Policy. Means 
of Raising Money. The Absolute Monarchy. — Charles VII. — 
Louis XI. (1461-1483) : His Character. —Louis XI. and the Nobles. 
Charles the Bold of Burgundy: His Defeat and Death. — Louis' 
Successes. — Spain under the Moors. — Ferdinand and Isabella : 
Their Policy. The Absolute Monarchy. Capture of Granada. 



CHAPTER XLIV 

THE EMPEROR CHARLES V. (1519-1556) 

The Dominions of Charles V. — Charles V. ruled over wider 
dominions than any European sovereign since Charlemagne. 
He belonged to the famous house of Hapsburg, from which he 
inherited Austria. It is said of Austria that, while other na- 
tions extended their power by conquest, it was her good fortune 
to gain territory by politic marriages. This is well illustrated 
by the inheritances of Charles V. On his father's side his 
grandmother was the heiress of Burgundy and the Nether- 
lands, and his grandfather was the emperor Maximilian ; the 
mother of Charles V. was the daughter of Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella of Spain. Besides Austria, Charles possessed Spain, the 
kingdom of Naples, the Netherlands, and their dependencies, 
together with the vast regions newly discovered in America. 
All these lands he held by right of inheritance. To these 
Germany was added by his election to the imperial throne. 

The Imperial Crown of Germany. — This honor of wearing 
the crow^n of Charlemagne was coveted by other sovereigns. 
Colby's gen. hist. — 22 



342 GENERAL HISTORY 

Henry VIII. of England and Francis I. of France were rival 
candidates ; and the choice of Charles never ceased to be a 
cause of envy and hatred to the latter of these kings. It was 
one cause of the long and disastrous wars between Francis 
and Charles. Nor did it add as much to the emperor's power 
as might be supposed, for the German princes were a jealous 
and unruly set of vassals; and, worse than that, Germany was 
soon to be conviilsed by religious strife ; for in the same year 
that Charles V. was crowned emperor, Martin Luther pub- 
licly burned a papal bull at AVittenberg, and defied the Eoman 
Catholic Church. 

First War with Francis I. (1521-1525). — Francis had other 
reasons for wishing to humble the emperor than disappoint- 
ment over his failure to obtain the imperial crown. In the 
first place, he had a good political reason, for he feared that 
Charles aimed to become a second Charlemagne, and extend 
his power over all Europe. In the second place, the French 
king wished to retain Milan, which the emperor claimed ; and 
at the same time the latter also claimed Burgundy, which had 
been seized by Louis XL, and was still kept by Francis. 

Francis was unfortunate from the first. He offended Henry 
VIII. , who accordingly joined the emperor against him. 
His agents in Italy governed so badly that the Italians also 
turned against him. Milan was lost to France. Finally, the 
strongest of his vassals, the constable of Bourbon, betrayed 
him and went over to Charles. 

Invasion of Italy. — Francis, thinking that if he commanded 
in person all might be regained, invaded Italy, recaptured 
Milan, and laid siege to the city of Pavia. Before reaching 
the walls of that city, he detached a considerable force from 
his army to march against Naples. With his reduced num- 
bers, he was no match for the Spaniards, who made a rush 
from the town, scattered his troops, and took him prisoner, 
after he had killed seven of his enemies with his own hand. 
The battle of Pavia (1525) decided the war. Francis wrote 
back to his mother, it is said, that all was lost save honor. 



THE EMPEKOR CHARLES V. 



343 



Treaty of Madrid. — He lost that, too, a little later ; for, hav- 
ing signed a treaty granting advantageous terms to Charles, he 
broke it as soon as he regained his liberty. This was the 
Treaty of Madrid, by which Francis gave up his claim to Bur- 
gundy and Xaples, and made other important concessions to 
Charles. He signed it when the latter's prisoner, — a fact 
which in part excuses his refusal to abide by it. 

Second War with Francis (1526-1529). — Francis had no in- 
tention of observing the Treaty of Madrid. The deputies of 




DOUBLE-BAURELED ' DRAGONNEAU ' 

(Cast in 1503 in Madrid) 



Burgundy, moreover, reminded him on his return to France 
that he had sworn to protect that province, and, therefore, that 
he had no right to give it np to Charles. 

Sack of Rome. — Italy found her new rulers harsher even 
than the French, and accordingly prepared to fight on the side 
of Francis, who was also aided by the pope, Henry YIIL, 
and the Swiss; so the advantage seemed at first to be with 
him. Early in the war, the traitor Bourbon allied himself 
with the Lutherans, and captured Kome. He was killed in 
the assault ; but his troops pillaged the city, showing all the 



344 GENERAL HISTORY 

cruelty and ruthlessness that had marked the sack of Kome by 
the Vandals and the Goths, A powerful French army then 
invaded Italy, but accomplished nothing permanent. Genoa 
went over to the side of the emperor, who came to Italy in 
person, and reasserted his authority in the peninsula. 

Treaty of Cambrai. — The war was closed by the Treaty of 
Cambrai, by which France retained Burgundy, but gave up all 
claims to Italian lands. Thenceforth a great part of Italy 
remained under the power of the house of Austria (except for 
the period of Napoleon's supremacy) till 1859, when the war 
of Italian independence resulted in the expulsion of the for- 
eigners. 

Alliance with the Turks. — At the close of his second war 
with Charles, Francis began to seek new allies, in the hope of 
regaining what he had lost by the Treaty of Cambrai. From 
Henry VIII. he could obtain no aid; for that prince pre- 
ferred to play the part of a neutral, and desired the complete 
success of neither of the two rivals. So Francis was driven, as 
a last resort, to an alliance with the celebrated Soliman L, 
Sultan of the Ottoman Turks, thus horrifying all Europe by 
joining with the infidels. 

Soliman the Magnificent. — Soliman I. was the greatest ruler 
of the Turks since the days of Mohammed II,, who had planted 
the crescent in Europe by the capture of Constantinople, in 
1453, His reign has been called the Golden Age of the Turk- 
ish race, for up to his time they were merely barbarians, with 
whom the Christians had nothing to do. Under Soliman they 
took a place among European peoples. For many years before 
Francis concluded his treaty with Soliman (1534), the latter 
had kept eastern Europe in constant terror from his attacks. 
In 1522, at the head of 150,000 men, he had taken Ehodes, 
and four years later he had won the great victory of Mohacs 
in Hungary. 

All Hungary was in his power, and he was marching on 
Vienna, the Austrian capital, at the very moment when the 
Treaty of Cambrai was being signed. It was Charles' dread 



THE EMPEROR CHARLES V. 



345 



of this new enemy that saved Francis from a still greater 
humiliation than that which he suffered in the terms of this 
treaty. It Avas this same fear that influenced the emperor to 
forgive the Protestants and consent to the religious peace of 
Nuremberg, in wiiich the Lutherans and Catholics forgot their 
differences for the moment, in order to repel the common foe 
of Christianity. 

Charles V. and the Turks. — With all Germany united 
against him, Soliman dared not continue his invasion, and re- 
turned to Constantinople immediately. Charles then turned 
his attention to the sultan's 
piratical subjects, whose head- 
quarters were at Tunis. These 
marauders had long been the pest 
of the Mediterranean. The coasts 
of Italy and Spain were never 
for a minute safe from their at- 
tacks, which always resulted in 
plunder and murder, and gener- 
ally in the capture of Christian 
prisoners, who were taken to the 
Barbary coast to be held as slaves 
by the Moslems. In 1535 Charles 
sent an expedition against Tunis. 

His success was complete, and he is said to have set free 20,000 
Christian captives. 

Alliance with the Lutherans. — Francis not only allied him- 
self with the Turks, but committed another crime in the eyes of 
orthodox Europe by aiding the Lutherans in Germany. Thus 
while Charles V. could pose as the defender of the cross, 
Francis appeared as the friend of heretics and infidels. He 
tried to justify himself by saying that- "when the wolves 
rushed upon his flock, it was surely his right to set the dogs 
upon them." 

Third War between Francis and Charles (i536-i538)» — War 
broke out in 1536. Francis at the first blow gained Savoy and 




Charles V. 



346 GENERAL HISTORY 

Piedmont, and was thus master of the approach to Italy ; but 
he let himself be duped by the false promises of Charles, and 
by entering upon negotiations allowed his enemy to gain time. 
Charles unexpectedly attacked Piedmont, captured its strong- 
holds, and appeared in southern France at the head of 60,000 
men. It seemed for the moment as if all France would be 
conquered in one campaign ; but by the French king's orders 
the country through which the Spaniards passed was made a 
desert. The imperialists suffered from want and from the 
constant attacks of the peasantry, and were at last forced to 
withdraw. In the next campaign France had somewhat better 
success ; but the war closed with the truce of Nice (1538), with- 
out a decisive gain for either party. Each prince kept what 
he had conquered. 

Revolt of Ghent. — For a short time after the war, Francis 
and Charles were on very amicable terms. The great city of 
Ghent in the Netherlands had revolted against its Spanish 
rulers, and offered to acknowledge Francis as its sovereign. 
Charles thought it politic to make friends with the French 
king in this emergency ; so he held out hopes that Milan 
would be given to Francis, who coveted Italian territory more 
than anything else. Francis not only refused to listen to the 
citizens of Ghent, but granted the emperor the privilege of 
passing through France for the express purpose of punishing 
the rebellious city. Charles soon had Ghent at his mercy. He 
made its proud burghers bow before him with halters around 
their necks, and fastened his tyrannical rule on the city more 
firmly than ever. This object gained, he had no scruples 
about refusing Milan to Francis. 

Fourth War between Francis and Charles (1542-1544). — The 
fourth war between these two quarrelsome monarchs was 
marked by one brilliant victory for the French, but was inde- 
cisive in its results. At Cerisoles the young Duke d'Enghien, 
who was under orders not to risk a battle, was keeping watch 
of the Spaniards. Tired of acting on the defensive, he begged 
the king to let him fight. The king finally consented, and the 



THE EMPEROR CHARLES V. Ml 

young commander won the most brilliant victory which France 
had gained for many years. The Spaniards are said to have 
lost 12,000 men; the French, only 200. But Francis did 
not follow up this advantage. In another quarter, France was 
attacked by Henry VIII. ; in still another by the emperor 
himself. Charles, however, was in danger from the Protestants 
at home. This fact, and the failure of the English to cooperate 
with him, made him willing to come to terms ; and the war 
ended with the Treaty of Crespy (1544), which left matters 
about as they were at the outbreak of the first war. 

Charles V. and the Protestants. — Three years after the 
Treaty of Crespy, Francis I. died, and Charles, free from the 
rivalry of the French king, was able to give his attention to 
the Protestants. In 1547 he began the first of his wars with 
the Smalkaldic League. The general results of these wars will 
be given in the succeeding chapter ; but it is necessary here to 
speak more particularly of their causes and their chief events. 

The Council of Trent met in 1545 to decide upon the merits 
of the Protestant movement ; but the Protestants of Germany 
refused to recognize its authority, because it was held in a 
foreign country and x^resided over by the pope. Luther, who 
had often worked in the interest of peace, died in 1546, and 
there was nothing to prevent the x^assions of the two parties 
from finding an outlet in war. 

The leaders of the league were Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, 
and John Frederick, Elector of Saxony, — men of totally op- 
posite characters. Philip was inclined to aggressive measures ; 
while John Frederick, though sincere and upright, trusted too 
much to an overruling Providence which should defend the 
right. He lacked energy in his own defense. So the league 
was weakened by dissension among its leaders. Duke Maurice 
of Saxony deserted to the emperor ; for, though a Protestant, 
he is said to have coveted the estates of John Frederick, and 
to have received from the emperor the promise of the electorate 
as the price of his services. 

The general of the league, though an able man, was ham- 



348 GENERAL HISTORY 

pered in every way by conflicting orders. After some slight 
success, he was recalled ; and Charles, who had found time to 
reinforce his army with troops from Italy and from the Nether- 
lands, reduced the cities of the league, and Anally defeated and 
captured the elector in the battle of Mlihlberg (1547). This 
success seems to have turned the emperor's head. He treated 
the captive John Frederick so harshly that he provoked a 
reaction. He also banished many Protestants, and caused 
much discontent by keeping his Spanish troops in Germany. 
Moreover, he offended his ally, Maurice of Saxony, who found 
himself ill rewarded for his treason. 

The Last Years of Charles V.'s Reign. — For a short time after 
the first war with the Protestant princes, Charles seemed to be 
at the height of his power ; but the French king, Henry II., 
saw a danger to France in the growing strength of the emperor. 
Maurice of Saxony and other Protestant princes secretly allied 
themselves with Henry. The second Smalkaldic war followed, 
and resulted almost instantly in the humiliation of Charles, who 
barely escaped capture by fleeing through the mountains to 
Switzerland. He soon afterwards attacked France, but with 
slight success. In 1555 he was obliged to agree to the re- 
ligious peace of Augsburg, recognizing under certain limita- 
tions the rights of Protestantism. Thus every one of his plans 
had failed of fulfillment. He had not crushed France, or made 
himself absolute in Germany, or uprooted Protestantism. Thor- 
oughly discouraged, he abdicated his throne in 1556, and retired 
to the monastery of San Yuste. There he is said to have passed 
his time in making clocks and mechanical toys, and, as his 
death grew near, to have indulged in the gloomy pastime of 
rehearsing his own funeral. He died iu 1558. 

Character of Charles V. — At the outset of his reign no prince 
ever had better prospects. With the resources of half of Europe 
at his command, it seemed inevitable that he would make him- 
self the ruler of the Western world. His failure was due in part 
to defects of character. He did not lack ability either in mili- 
tary matters or in the direction of state policy ; but he was ut- 



THE EMPEROR CHARLES V. 349 

terly unable to understand the real nature of the time in which 
he lived. He underestimated the strength of the Protestant 
movement. He himself was a bigot, and he believed that the 
exertion of a little force would bind men's consciences to the 
old faith. In his political schemes he was thoroughly selfish. 
He had no regard for the spirit of nationality, and seized what 
lands he could, without consideration for the wishes of the 
inhabitants. It was too late for a universal monarchy, and 
any attempt to unite all Europe under the ,rule of one man 
was doomed to failure. 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Emperor Charles V. (1519-1556). — Dominions of Charles V. : 
His Inheritance. — The Imperial Crown of Germany. Rival Claim- 
ants. — First War with Francis I. : Causes of the War. Reverses of 
Francis. — Invasion of Italy : Defeat of Francis at Pavia. — Treaty 
of Madrid. — Second War with Francis. — Sack of Rome. — Treaty 
of Cambrai. — Alliance with the Turks. — Soliman the Magnificent : 
Alliance of the French and the Turks, Successes of Soliman in 
Eastern Europe. — Charles V. and the Turks : The Expedition 
against Tunis. — Alliance with the Lutherans. — Third War between 
Francis and Charles : Invasion of France by the Spaniards. Truce 
of Nice. — Revolt of Ghent: Its Suppression by Charles. — Fourth 
War between Francis and Charles : Battle of Cerisoles. Treaty of 
Crespy. — Charles V. and the Protestants : The Smalkaldic League. 
The Leaders. Desertion of Maurice of Saxony. Charles' Victory at 
Miihlberg. — The Last Years of Charles V.'s Reign: His Reverses 
in the War with the Protestants. His Abdication and Death, — 
Character of Charles V, : His Blunders. 



CHAPTER XLV 

THE PERIOD OF THE REFORMATION 

Summary of Periods. — It has already been said that the 
early part of modern history, that is, from the year 1492 to 
the year 1648, was a period of religious revolt., Before the 
sixteenth century had advanced many years, the movement 
known as the Reformation arose in Germany, and from that 
time down to the middle of the seventeenth century the main 
interest of European peoples was in religious questions. We 
may therefore term this entire period the period of the Prot- 
estant revolution, or the Period of the Reformation. First 
came the origin of the new movement and its struggle against 
great odds; then came many years of warfare involving the 
great powers of Europe. In 1648, by the Treaty of West- 
phalia, all the nations of Europe reached a compromise in 
these religious disputes, and the succeeding period takes on a 
new character. 

The years following 1648 were marked less by religious 
quarrels than by political rivalries. European states fell to 
disputing about territories and political claims, and within 
the states themselves the different social classes were carry- 
ing on a struggle over political privileges. We can therefore 
conveniently term this later period of modern history, — from 
the middle of the seventeenth century to the present time, — 
the Period of the Growth of Nations. 

Character of the Reformation. — The Reformation was a revolt 
against the power of the Roman Catholic Church. Men felt 
that the exercise of that power was an interference with their 
national and local rights. Along with hostility to the outward 
power of the Roman Church there grew up a feeling of distrust 
in the spiritual teachings of the Church in many important 
points. The reformers, therefore, aimed not only to rid them- 
selves of government from Rome, but to establish a faith 

350 



THE PERIOD OF THE REFORMATION 851 

which should be purer and more orthodox than that which was 
then accepted. 

Causes of the Reformation. — The revival of learning in Eu- 
rope set men to thinking along many unaccustomed lines. It 
had opened new sources of information, as well as stimulated in- 
quiry. In many departments of human thought men had dis- 
carded authorities and revised their own opinions. They came 
to trust in their private judgment, and to investigate for them- 
selves many matters which had hitherto been unquestioningly 
accepted. It was natural that they should apply the same 
methods to religious matters and come to opinions at variance 
with those hitherto held and still maintained by conservative 
minds. 

The Church at this time was thought by many to be cor- 
rupt in its administration of affairs. There were loud com- 
plaints against extortions by church officers, and other abuses. 
There had been such complaints before, but anything like a 
revolt against the authority of the Church had been quickly put 
down, and in many instances abuses had been removed by 
reformation within the Church itself. The new movement, 
however, was destined to become too powerful to be put down, 
and its leaders soon passed beyond the point at which they 
were willing to reform the Church from within. Finding that 
the Church would not respond as quickly and as fully to their 
demands as they wished, they left the Church and attacked it 
from without. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Period of the Reformation. — Summary of Periods: Period of 
the Reformation. Period of the Growth of Nations. — Character of 
the Reformation. — Causes of the Reformation : The Revival of Learn- 
ini?. Abuses in Church Government. 



CHAPTER XLVI 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 



Immediate Causes of the Movement. — When the Reformation 
first appeared in Germany, there had long been discontent with 
the administration of Church affairs. The immediate occa- 
sion of the movement was the sale of indulgences by a Domini- 
can monk named Tetzel. In the early Church indulgences were 
remissions of penances imposed on people who were guilty of 

mortal sins. It was always under- 
stood that a man must first have 
shown true penitence, but this being 
so, the Church exercised the power 
of remitting the temporal punish- 
ment for his sins. The custom arose 
of accepting the payment of money 
instead of subjecting the penitent 
to some other form of penance. 
Tetzel and his agents are said to 
have dispensed these indulgences 
in Germany in such a manner as 
to cause scandal among the better 
classes. The conduct of Tetzel and 
his associates gave great offense to 
the friends, as well as the foes, of 
the Church, and the general discon- 
tent soon found a vigorous spokes- 
man in an Augustinian monk named Martin Luther. 

Martin Luther. — Martin Luther was born at Eis'leben in 1483. 
He was the son of a poor miner, had entered the Augustinian 
order, and had become professor of theology at Wittenberg. 
In the course of his studies he had come to question the 
practice of the Church in regard to the whole system of 
penance. Up to this time, however, he had made no open 

352 




THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 353 

protest, but Tetzel's course in Germany impelled him to public 
opposition. In 1517 he nailed to the church door at Witten- 
berg ninety-tive theses or propositions, appealing to men's 
consciences against the practice of " selling forgiveness." 

The widespread discontent in Germany gave to these theses 
an instant publicity. They were printed and scattered broad- 
cast throughout the country. In them Luther showed no in- 
tention to break with the authority of the Eoman Catholic 
Church. They were merely propositions for dispute, and he 
nailed them on the church door as a challenge to any dispu- 
tant who might be willing to argue against them. Disputants 
soon appeared, and the first thing they did was to appeal to 
the authority of the Church. This led Luther, at first, to ques- 
tion and finally to deny the authority of the Church, as resting 
not on a divine but on a human basis. He said that the Church 
was not the source of divine truth, and that the Bible was the 
sole source. The Reformation now entered on its first phase. 

Luther and the Pope. — Pope Leo X. tried at first to bring 
Luther to terms by peaceful measures. He sent his legate, an 
Italian scholar named Caj'etan, to demand his obedience, but 
failed to win him over. Luther had a firm friend in Frederick 
the Wise, the Elector of Saxony, who, though he often opposed 
Luther's imprudence, did not fail to protect him in the hour 
of need. Another friend of Luther's, and a very keen and 
learned ally in his religious warfare, was Philip Melanch'thon, 
who was a professor of Greek at Wittenberg. 

After the failure of a second attempt to make Luther retract, 
a public disputation was held at Leipzig. Here the Cath- 
olic champion was Dr. Eck, a very able and keen-witted de- 
fender of the papacy. Luther found himself forced to take a 
more decided stand in regard to the primacy of the Koman 
bishop. In the course of the debate he came out openly as a 
disbeliever in the divine authority of the pope, and he declared 
that some of the views of John Huss, who had been burned at 
the stake as a heretic, were orthodox. Luther soon issued an 
appeal to the nobles of Germany against the Roman clergy and 



354 GENERAL HISTORY 

against the interference of the Church in temporal affairs. In 
1520 the pope issued a bull condemning Luther's writings 
and ordering him to recant in sixty days on pain of excom- 
munication. Luther's only answer to this was the xmblic 
burning of the bull in the presence of a throng of students at 
the gates of Wittenberg. By this act he virtually declared 
open war on the Church. 

The Diet of Worms (1521). — Charles V. had now come to 
the imperial throne, attaining thereby the position of the 
most powerful sovereign in Europe. The first great step 
that he had to take was to decide between the pope and Luther. 
Accordingly, on his arrival in Germany in 1521, he met the 
imperial diet at Worms and summoned there Luther under a 
safe-conduct. Luther was called upon to recant, but refused 
to do so unless he could be shown that his opinions were con- 
trary to the teachings of the Bible. His attitude was coura- 
geous and his refusal to retract caused great indignation on the 
part of the emperor and the friends of the Church ; but he Avas 
allowed to return in safety. 

Luther at the Wartburg. — After he had left the diet, an 
edict of outlawry was passed against him. This classed him 
as a heretic, thereby forbidding anybody to shelter him. 
On Luther's journey home the Elector of Saxony, fearing for 
his safety, had him conveyed to the castle of Wartburg near 
Munich. While there Luther busied himself with the trans- 
lation of the Bible into German, giving to his version a 
vigor and pithiness of style which has made it a classic of 
German literature. 

W'ars. — Luther left the castle of Wartburg to quiet a dis- 
turbance in Wittenberg, where a friend of Luther named Carl- 
stadt was trying to give to the reform movement a radical 
and violent character. He and his followers aimed at sweep- 
ing away the entire ecclesiastical system. Luther's persua- 
sions were effective and the movement was checked, but other 
radical and zealous leaders had been busy in stirring up the 
peasantry, and in 1524 the great Peasants' Revolt broke out. 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 



355 



The rebellion failed completely and its authors were punished 
with great cruelty. Luther, though sympathizing with the 
wrongs of the peasants, was wholly opposed to the revolt and 
took the side of the authorities. 

This was not the only war in the ten years that followed the 
Diet of Worms. The first and second wars between Francis 
and Charles V. took place during this interval. This fact is 
important as showing why the emperor was not free to give 
his full attention to the crushing out of the reform movement 
in Germany. 




Progress of the Reformation. — During this time the reformers 
made considerable progress. Under Adrian VI., who succeeded 
Pope Leo X., there seemed for a moment the chance of a recon- 
ciliation, for he was disposed to pay some regard to the com- 
plaints against ecclesiastical abuses in Germany. Clement 
VII., however, who came to the papal throne in 1523, was less 
inclined to yield to these demands. 



356 GENERAL HISTORY 

Protestants. — The lack of a strong central rule in Germany- 
was most favorable to the new cause. Had the emperor been 
able to carry everything as he wished, there is no doubt that 
he would have destroyed the reform party in its infancy, but 
the princes of Germany were jealous of him and of each other, 
and some of them were friends of Luther more from policy 
than from religious conviction. These powerful friends of 
his were so numerous that for several years a majority could 
not be found against him in the imperial diets. 

At the second Diet of Spires, however, in 1529, an edict was 
passed which forbade the progress of the reform in all the 
states that had not yet accepted it. To the reformers this 
seemed most unjust ; for the old faith was free to go anywhere. 
Accordingly the Elector of Saxony and several other German 
princes, as well as fourteen of the cities, signed a protest, and 
from this fact the reformers were called Protestants. At 
another diet which was called at Augsburg in the following 
year the Protestant confession of faith was read. This is 
known as the Augsburg Confession, and contained all the 
essential doctrines of Protestantism. 

Luther and the Swiss Reformers. — At the very time when it 
seemed most necessary that Protestants should be everywhere 
united against their common foes, there occurred a serious 
breach between two important branches of the Protestant 
Church. The new movement had already made considerable 
progress in Switzerland, but it there took on a somewhat 
different character from that which it bore in Germany. The 
leader of the Swiss Eeformation, Zwingli, took a different view 
from Luther on the subject of the Lord's Supper and some 
other points in doctrine, but he himself was not intolerant, 
and it seemed probable that the two bodies might be united. 
For this purpose a meeting was arranged at Marburg in 1529. 
There efforts were made by the friends of peace in both parties 
to reach a compromise. Luther, however, refused to recognize 
the Swiss reformers as in the same communion, and, though 
they signed a number of articles on which they could agree 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 357 

and promised to be mutually forbearing, there was still much 
bitterness of feeling between the more extreme members of 
each party, and union was for the time impossible. 

To the Peace of Nuremberg. — Matters looked so threatening 
for the Protestants that they formed a league known as the 
League of Smalkald for mutual defense. This was opposed 
by Luther because it looked toward war, and he did not believe 
in pushing his cause by force of arms, holding steadily to the 
doctrine of passive obedience, that is, the submission of the 
subject to the civil ruler. The danger to the Protestants was 
averted for the time by another war which the emperor found 
on his hands. This was the war against the Turks. It 
was essential to Charles V. to have a united Germany to drive 
back the invading Turks, and, to secure this, some concessions 
were made to the Protestants in the Religious Peace of Nurem- 
berg, 1532. By this peace matters were to be left as they were, 
and the Protestants were to retain such privileges as they had 
until a general council could be called to decide on the ques- 
tion of reform. 

To Luther's Death. — During the next ten years Protestant- 
ism made rapid progress. Charles was involved in a war with 
France in 1536. In 1538 the Catholics formed the Holy 
League at Nuremberg, so the two parties were arrayed against 
each other ; but Luther's influence was constantly exercised on 
the side of peace, and peace was maintained down to the year 
of his death in 1546. Though he strove for peace, he would 
not hear of a compromise on religious matters. A few years 
before his death the papal legate had shown a willingness to 
grant several important points to the Protestants ; but Luther 
refusing to abandon anything in return, the compromise was 
not brought about. 

The Character of Luther. — Even now after 350 years have 
passed it is hard to form an impartial opinion of Luther's 
character. His friends are so devoted and his enemies so 
bitter that the facts of his life are colored by fancy or 
distorted by prejudice. That he was a sincere and earnest 
Colby's gkn. hist. — 23 



358 GENERAL HISTORY 

man can not be doubted. He was a singularly bold and 
vigorous champion of a new cause. In pressing his points, 
however, he often used means that were not judicious. 
His language was often violent and his attitude, both to his 
enemies and to some of his would-be friends, was not conciliat- 
ing. There was an excuse for this in the intensity of his con- 
victions and in the fierceness of the disputes in which he found 
himself involved. He has been blamed for the language of 
his controversial writings. It has been said of him that " he 
bellowed in bad Latin " ; that his language was unnecessarily 
abusive. Still we must remember that the language used by 
others toward him was not of a kind always to call for a gentle 
retort. Henry VIII. called him " the hound who brought up 
heresies anew out of hell." Luther retorted in an equally 
abusive strain, and when he afterwards apologized for writing 
in that style, Henry treated his apology as if it were an ac- 
knowledgment of defeat. 

If there is some excuse for the violence of Luther's lan- 
guage, there is still more for his intolerance. Intolerance was 
the spirit of the age. To believe oneself right in religious 
matters then meant that the other party was of necessity 
wrong and must be made to abandon his error. Uniformity 
in religious belief was regarded as necessary, and neither 
Protestants nor Catholics would tolerate heresy if they could 
help it. 

The Religious Peace of Augsburg. — An account of the first 
and second Smalkaldic wars has already been given. We 
have seen that the emperor was successful in the first, but 
that he made such bad use of his victory as to provoke the 
Protestants to a second revolt ; and, in the attempt to suppress 
this, he failed completely. The treaty closing the second 
Smalkaldic war is known as the Eeligious Peace of Augsburg 
(1555). This gave to the princes of Germany right of choice 
between the Protestant faith as embodied in the Augsburg 
Confession, and the Catholic religion. Having once chosen 
between these two faiths, the prince could expel from his 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 359 

country any person who professed a different creed. Thus 
the religion of the prince was to be the religion of the land 
over which he reigned. 

An important clause in the treaty was that known as the 
Ecclesiastical Reservation. This provided that if an ecclesias- 
tical prince, that is, a bishop or abbot, should turn Protestant, 
he must give up his office and his revenues. This article was 
in the interest of the Catholics, and could not fail to be dis- 
pleasing to the Protestants. It was destined to be the cause 
of a renewal of the religious strife. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Reformation in Germany. — Immediate Causes of the Movement : 
The Sale of Indulgences. — Martin Luther : The Ninety-five Theses. 
— Luther and the Pope: Luther's Friends. The Disputation with 
Dr. Eck. The Pope's Condemnation. Luther's Writings. The 
Burning of the Papal Bull. — The Diet of Worms: Luther's Appear- 
ance at the Diet. — Luther at the Wartburg : His Translation of the 
Bible. — Wars : The More Radical Reformers. The Peasants' Revolt. 
The Wars Continued. Charles V. and Francis. — Progress of the 
Reformation. — The Protestants : The Adoption of the Name Prot- 
estant. The Augsburg Confession. — Luther and the Swiss Reform- 
ers : Disagreement between the German and Swiss Protestants. — 
To the Peace of Nuremberg : The League of Smalkald. The War 
with the Turks. — To Luther's Death: Formation of the Holy 
League by Catholics. — The Character of Luther: His Simplicity, 
Boldness, and Intolerance. — The Religious Peace of Augsburg: 
Limited Tolerance of the Protestants. The Ecclesiastical Reserva- 
tion. 



CHAPTER XLVII 

THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 

Henry VIII. (1509-1547). — Henry VIII. came to the throne 
in 1509, inheriting a vast treasure which- he owed to the ava- 
rice of his father. A young and active man, he was ambitious 
in the early part of his reign for military distinction, and sev- 



360 



GENERAL HISTORY 




IlENUV VIII. 



eral times he took part in the wars on the continent. These 
wars gave England small glory and no practical advantage. 

The only brilliant military 
achievement of the reign was 
gained when Henry was 
abroad ; this was the battle 
of Flodden Field in 1513, 
where the English defeated 
the Scotch army which was 
sent across the border to 
plunder the northern coun- 
ties. 

Cardinal Wolsey. — In the 
early part of Henry's reign 
the most conspicuous figure 
in his court was Cardinal 
Wolsey, whom he made his counselor and who soon gained 
great influence over the mind of the king. Both the king and 
his counselor were friends of the new learning, and gave liberal 
encouragement to men of letters. Wolsey was ambitious to 
become pope, and succeeded in gaining the favor of Rome and 
the appointment as cardinal and papal legate. But, while the 
minister's ambition bound him to the side of the pope, the 
king, his master, was finding a motive for a breach with Eome. 
This came about through Henry's desire for a divorce from 
his wife, Catherine of Aragon, who had been the wife of 
Henry's elder brother. 

The Divorce. — Down to the time of the difficulty over the 
divorce question, Henry had been one of the stanchest sup- 
porters of the Roman Catholic Church. In the eighth year 
of his reign he had written a book against Luther, and for 
his zeal on behalf of the Church had received from the pope 
the title of Defender of the Faith. As to the divorce, Henry 
claimed that he desired it on account of religious scruples. 
To marry a deceased brother's widow was wrong in the eyes 
of the Church, but this matter had come up when the mar- 



THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 361 

riage was proposed and the jjope then ruling had granted a 
dispensation, making the union legal. Henry professed to 
believe that this act of the pope was contrary to Church laws, 
and that it was the duty of the present pope to declare that 
the marriage was illegal and therefore of no effect. In the 
meanwhile, however, he had fallen in love with a maid 
of honor named Anne Bo'leyn, and it is a question how far 
this attachment influenced his course. The question was 
further complicated by the fact that Queen Catherine was 
the aunt of Charles V., whom the pope was afraid to offend. 
When the matter was referred to Eome, Clement VII. pursued 
a policy of delay, appointing a papal legate from Italy and 
Cardinal Wolsey as commissioners to decide on the validity of 
the marriage. 

The Fall of Wolsey. — It is probable that Wolsey did not 
show himself especially active on his master's behalf. At all 
events, Henry took it into his head that his minister was pur- 
posely dilatory and he suddenly deposed him from his offices 
and charged him with treason. Wolsey, broken-hearted at this 
change in his fortune, died on the way to answer to the charge. 

The Breach with Rome. — Henry now took matters into his 
own hands. He appointed as his chief minister Thomas Crom- 
well, a man who opposed the temporal power of the pope. 
Henry's interest was furthered also by securing Parliaments 
that were hostile to Rome. Acting on the advice of Cromwell, 
he secretly married Anne Boleyn. His new archbishop, 
Thomas Cranmer, then annulled Henry's marriage with Cath- 
erine. The pope now excommunicated Henry ; but there was 
a powerful party in England on the latter's side and the ex- 
communication did no damage. Parliament passed what was 
known as the Statute of Appeals, making it criminal for an 
Englishman to appeal to Rome from the decision of an English 
court. This was the first step in the separation from Rome. 
The final measure was the Act of Supremacy (1534), by which 
Henry was made the supreme head of the Church of England, 
with complete control over all ecclesiastical offices and revenues. 



362 GENERAL HISTORY 

The New Church. — The new Church was neither Koman 
Catholic nor Protestant. It retained the doctrines of the 
former, but, in place of the pope, the head of the Church was 
the king. To deny the supremacy of Henry was high treason, 
punishable by death. At first Henry seemed inclined to in- 
troduce changes favored by the Protestants, but in the latter 
part of his reign he enforced strictly the Eoman Catholic doc- 
trine. Thus there were two parties who were each liable 
to severe persecution, — the Protestants, since they could 
not accept the doctrines of the Anglican Church, and the 
Eoman Catholics, since they could not admit the suprem- 
acy of the king in religious matters. It has been said that 
men were hanged for opposing the king, and burned for 
siding with him. 

Suppression of the Monasteries. — In the latter part of Henry's 
reign his government was exceedingly harsh. One of the 
severest measures of this period was the suppression of the 
monasteries, which was carried out by Thomas Cromwell with 
merciless thoroughness. First a commission was appointed 
to investigate the moral life of the monasteries, in order that 
by proving them to be corrupt there might be an ostensible 
reason for their suppression. The charge of immorality was 
probably substantiated in the case of some of the smaller 
monasteries, but the larger ones do not appear to have had a 
bad character. All, however, were destroyed, and their prop- 
erty and revenues were confiscated to the crown. The wealth 
thus gained was in part bestowed by Henry upon courtiers 
whom he wished to attach to his interests. This policy was 
successful; for those who received the lands were naturally 
opposed to the return of the old Church, lest their property 
should be taken from them. 

Changes in the House of Lords. — Another important result 
of this act was the change in the character of the House of 
Lords. The abbots had formerly made up a considerable part 
of that body, the abbots and bishops together outnumbering 
the secular members. Now that the abbots were deprived of 



THE REFORMATION IN OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES ^(53 

all their offices and dignities, the lay element in the House 
of Lords became the most numerous. 

In spite of Henry's severity and even cruelty, he somehow 
contrived to retain his hold on the good will of his subjects. 
He was a popular ruler. In his private life he was immoral. 
He was married six times, and of his wives two were divorced, 
two were beheaded at the king's order, one died a short time 
after marriage, and the last, Catherine Parr, outlived him. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Reformation in England. — Hemy VIII. : His Ambition for Mili- 
tary Glory. The Battle of Flodden Field. — Cardinal Wolsey : 
Wolsey's Ambition for Church Preferment. — The Divorce : Grounds 
for the Divorce. Henry and Anne Boleyn. — The Fall of Wolsey. 
— The Breach with Rome : Henry's Secret Marriage with Anne Bo- 
leyn. The Excommunication of Henry. The Statute of Appeals. 
The Act of Supremacy. — The New Church: Persecutions. — Sup- 
pression of the Monasteries : The Charges Against the Monasteries. 
Results of the Suppression. — Changes in the House of Lords: 
Henry's Character. 



CHAPTER XLVIII 

THE REFORMATION IN OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES 

The Swiss Reformers. — The leader of the Reformation in 
Switzerland was Zwingli, who was born in 1484 and educated 
at the University of Vienna, where he acquired a taste for the 
new learning. Like Luther, he came to believe that the 
Church doctrines on the subject of penance were wrong. He 
opposed the purchase of indulgences. He also questioned the 
authority of the pope and predicted the fall of the papacy. 
When an agent of the Church, named Samson, began the same 
practices in Switzerland that Tetzel had employed in Germany, 
Zwingli preached against him. Acquiring a great reputation 
for his eloquence, he drew crowds to hear his sermons. In 



364 GENERAL HISTORY 

many of his views lie approached Luther, but was inclined to 
go somewhat farther than Luther and differed radically from 
him, as we have seen, on the subject of the Lord's Supper. 

In 1524 the canton of Zurich declared its independence of 
its Catholic bishop and became Protestant. Its example was 
followed by other cantons, and soon the Roman Catholics and 
the Protestants were arrayed against each other. The Prot- 
estants were in the majority, but were divided by jealousy. 
It was Zwingli's idea to form the cantons that had joined the 
new faith into a republic, but each city wished to be the capi- 
tal of the new republic, and when the war broke out between 
the Catholics and the Protestants, the latter did not act in 
harmony. The Protestant army was defeated at Cappel in 
1531 and Zwingli was killed. Disunion among the Protestants 
still continued and an unfavorable peace was formed with the 
Catholics, who regained much of what they had lost. Thus 
in Switzerland, as in Germany, the country was divided against 
itself on religious matters. 

Calvin in Geneva. — John Chauvin, or Calvin, was one of the 
greatest leaders of the Reformation. He was born in 1509, in 
France, and received a careful education, in the course of which 
he showed unusual gifts as a scholar. While still very young, 
he became an ardent Protestant and was obliged to flee from 
Paris. He published in his Institutes of the Christian Religion 
a remarkable exposition of the Protestant faith. His system 
of theology was logical and systematic. His views differed 
from Luther's in regard to the Lord's Supper and in certain 
stern doctrines on the subject of God's sovereignty. 

In 1536 he took up his residence in Geneva in Switzerland, 
which had become a Protestant city. His influence raised 
him to the position of the virtual ruler of the city, which he 
turned into a sort of religious republic, administered in the 
strictest manner. Purity of life and orthodoxy of faith were 
enforced by rigorous laws, but, in spite of the somewhat 
gloomy character of his rule, Geneva became a resort for 
earnest Protestants of all lands. The influence of Calvinism 



THE REFORMATION IN OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES 365 

spread into France, England, Scotland, and Germany, and 
since it differed in several respects from the Protestantism 
of Luther and the Protestantism of Zwingli, there was now 
a threefold division of the Protestant world. 

Denmark and Sweden. — In Denmark and Sweden the reli- 
gious question was mixed up with political issues. Christian 
II., the king of Denmark, was bent on crushing the power 
of the nobility, and to accomplish this he made an attack on 
Sweden in order to force the Swedes to aid him against his 
own subjects. In this campaign he seized the Swedish city 
of Stockholm and massacred many of the Swedes. This 
caused him to be detested by both the Swedes and his own 
countrymen, and an uprising in Denmark drove him from the 
throne. His successor, Frederick, who became king in 1523, 
was a Lutheran, but had promised not to introduce the new 
faith. Nevertheless Protestantism had been preached in 
Denmark with success. The nobles favored it and, in 1527, 
it received toleration. Nine years later it became the estab- 
lished faith in Sweden. There the young king, Gustavus Vasa, 
was favorable to Lutheranism and, although the peasantry 
were deeply attached to the old faith. Protestantism made rapid 
progress. It was helped by the king's attacks on the Church, 
for it was his policy to weaken the aristocracy, both lay and 
clerical. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Reformation in Othek European Countries. — The Swiss Re- 
formers : Zwingli. His Opposition to the Teachings of the Church. 
The Swiss Protestants. Their Defeat at Cappel. — Calvin in Geneva : 
Calvin's Theological System. The Nature of his Government in 
Geneva. The Spread of Calvinism. — Denmark and Sweden : Prot- 
estantism tolerated in Denmark. Gustavus Vasa, King of Sweden. 
Sweden becomes Protestant. 



CHAPTER XLIX 

ARREST OF THE REFORMATION 

The Division of Protestantism. — One of the most serious 
checks to Protestantism was the lack of union among the 
Protestants themselves. The Catholics had said that when 
once the spirit of dissent had arisen it would go to all lengths 
and lead to endless divisions. If a body of reformers, exercis- 
ing their private judgment, could withdraw from the Church, 
it was probable that others would follow the same plan and 
withdraw from the new organization. The Protestants were, 
as we have seen, divided into the three main branches of 
Lutherans, Calvinists, and Zwinglians. This was very early 
in their history and, as time passed, the divisions and 
subdivisions multiplied. It was evident that this disunion 
must cause weakness. Moreover, there was not merely a lack 
of agreement, but positive bitterness between the Protestant 
sects. 

Order of the Jesuits. — The Order of the Jesuits was founded 
in 1540, through the influence of Ignatius Loy'ola, who was 
chosen as its head. Its object was to fight the battles of the 
Church in this time of religious strife, to prevent the spread 
of heresy, and to reconvert those who had fallen away from the 
orthodox faith. Its distinctive feature was the fact that its 
members were exempt from the ordinary monastic duties, and 
could devote themselves more extensively to preaching, hear- 
ing confessions, and educating the young. The Jesuit could 
mingle in society, and take part in any affairs of active life. 
But absolute and unquestioning obedience, in all things not 
sinful, even to the sacrifice of their lives, was required of all 
the members of the order. The education of the young, espe- 
cially of those in the higher walks of life, fell into their hands. 
Prom southern Europe they spread through all of what was 
called the '- debatable land " ; that is, those countries in which 

366 



ARREST OF THE REFORMATION 367 

there was uncertainty as to the issue of the struggle between 
Protestantism and the Roman Catholic faith. Their work was 
exceedingly successful. In France, Belgium, southern Ger- 
many, Bohemia, Moravia, Poland, and Hungary, they did much 
to prevent the spread of Protestantism, and to win back those 
who had abjured the old faith. 

The Inquisition. — The Inquisition was an extraordinary 
court, which appeared first in the time of the Albigensian 
heresy in France. It was revived in Spain in the reign of 
Ferdinand and Isabella for the purpose of seeking out "re- 
lapsed Jews " ; that is, Jews who, after being forcibly converted 
to Christianity, had fallen back to their old faith. Its methods 
were high-handed, and its authority was superior to that of the 
other courts. In Spain it was closely connected with the civil 
power, and was often used by the sovereign to carry out his 
own plans. 

The methods applied by the Inquisition against Protestantism 
were very severe. Its proceedings were arbitrary, and those who 
were brought before it had not a fair chance of justice. As to 
the numbers burned at the stake, or otherwise punished as a 
result of sentences, there is great diversity of opinion. It is 
probable that in the time of Torquema'da (1560), the number 
was very large. One of the duties of the court was the sup- 
pression of heretical books, and it fulfilled this duty with much 
fidelity, in some cases destroying all copies of a published 
work. 

The Counter Reformation. — By this is meant the effort of the 
Church to reform itself from within. We have seen already 
that the Church, at times, showed itself willing to make some 
advances toward the Protestants and remove some of the 
alleged abuses. The attacks on the Church had the effect of 
impelling its members to adopt some important reforms. 

Council of Trent. — In 1545 the Council of Trent was assem- 
bled by the pope, Paul III. The Protestants had hoped much 
from it, but soon found that reconciliation was impossible. 
Early in its session, the council declared against the chief 



368 GENERAL HISTORY 

Protestant doctrines, and after Charles Y. had gained his firsi 
victory over the Smalkaldic League, the council reasserted al 
the old doctrines of the Church. Yet it declared definitely 
against some of the abuses of which the Protestants com 
plained. For instance, it issued a decree against those " whc 
availed themselves of the word of God in order to fill theii 
own pockets with lucre." What the Church gained by th( 
Council of Trent was a clear statement of its doctrines and ar 
improvement in its organization. 

General Results. — -During the first period of the Eeforma 
tion Protestantism made a very rapid advance. Its advanct 
was checked by the four causes mentioned ; namely, the dis 
sension among the Protestants, the founding of the Order oJ 
the Jesuits, the vigorous measures taken to repress heresy, anc 
the purification and improvement of the Church itself. As £ 
result, the Catholics regained much of what had been taker 
from them, and prevented many threatened losses. 

In general, the Teutonic countries of Europe were favorable 
to the new faith, while the Latin nations adhered to the old 
In Spain and Italy the movement made no progress. Ir 
France it made some advance at first, but did not retain iU 
strength. Germany was divided into Protestant and Eomar 
Catholic states, southern Germany generally being Eomar 
Catholic. England, Scotland, and the Scandinavian countries 
became Protestant, and Switzerland partly so. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Arrest of the Reformation. — The Division of Protestantism : Lu- 
tlierans, Calvinists, and Zwinglians. — Order of the Jesuits : Objed 
of the Society. Distinctive Features. The Success of the Jesuits.— 
The Inquisition : The Inquisition in Spain. Its Methods. — Th( 
Counter Reformation. — Council of Trent: Beneficial Effect upor 
the Church. — General Results: Rapid Advance of Protestantism al 
First. Causes which Checked its Progress. The Outcome of the 
Struggle. 



CHAPTER L 

ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 

The Period The period treated in this chapter extends from 

the death of Henry VIII. in 1547, to the end of the Tudor 
dynasty, with the death of Elizabeth, in 1603. This was the 
closing period of the Reformation in England, and was also a 
time of commercial development and intellectual advancement. 

Edward VI. (1547-1553). — Edward VI., the son of Henry 
VIII. and Jane Seymour, was but ten years old when he 
came to the throne, but he showed a knowledge and power 
of understanding far beyond his years. The main interest 
of the reign is on its religious side. The Protestants gained 
the upper hand. The Roman Catholic doctrines retained 
in the Church of Henry VIII. were abolished, a new creed 
was formed, and the Book of Common Prayer was issued. 
The change was too sudden and complete to please the major- 
ity of the people. Moreover, the Protestants Avent to extremes 
in the destruction of images, in the removal of crosses and 
decorations from the churches, and in other departures from 
the customs and ceremonies of the old organization. Those 
who would not accept the changes in doctrine and worship 
were persecuted. Edward VI., under the advice of one of his 
ministers, declared his second cousin Lady Jane Grey his heir 
to the throne in defiance of the claims of the rightful heir, 
Mary Tudor, the daughter of Henry by Catherine of Aragon. 

Mary Tudor. — Lady Jane Grey fell a victim to the schemes 
of her advisers. On the death of Edward VI., the plot to 
place her on the throne failed, and she was later put to death. 
Mary became queen. She had been trained in the Roman 
Catholic faith and was determined to restore the old Church. 
There was some opposition to this from her Parliament and 
from that class which had benefited b}^ the suppression of the 
monasteries. The work of Edward VI. 's reign, however, was 

369 



870 



GENERAL HISTORY 



swept away, and severe measures were adopted against th( 
Protestants. In tlie course of lier reign it has been estimatec 
that over 200 Protestants were put to death for religion's 
sake. Among them were men of distinction, like the bishops 
Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, as well as many obscure per- 
sons. Her course was unwise as well as unpopular, for she 
raised up foes against the restored religion. She won for her 
self the name of Bloody Mary. 

Loss of Calais. — Another thing which caused the ill-will o; 
her subjects was her Spanish marriage. She became the wif( 
of Philip II. of Spain, and the English people were not pleasec 
with the Spanish alliance. As a result of it, England was or 
the side of Spain against France, and in the war which fol 
lowed, the last stronghold of the English in France, Calais 
was taken by the French. Soon after this reverse the queer 
died. 

Elizabeth. — Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry YIII. b} 
Anne Boleyn. Her reign is one of the most remarkable ir 

English history. It lasted fron: 
1558 to 1603, and in those years 
England's glory was brightei 
than it had ever been before 
Elizabeth was not extreme ii: 
her religious views. She was 
probably lacking in religious 
feeling, but, on the whole, in- 
clined toward the Protestani 
system, though not bitter 
against the Roman Catholic 
C h u r c h . Accordingly, the 
:_y^ Church of Elizabeth was less 

Protestant than that of Edward 

Kl.lZAiNKlII 

VI., but did not retain the 
Roman Catholic doctrines of the Church of Mary and Henry 
VIII. It was a Protestant Church, but kept the old forms of 
worship. 




ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 371 

Mary Queen of Scots. — When Elizabeth came to the throne 
of England, the x^eople of Scotland were fast becoming Protes- 
tants under the influence of the stern old preacher John Knox, 
who had become a thoroughgoing Calvinist. In a few years 
the Presbyterian faith Avas established as the religion of Scot- 
land. Mary Stuart, the Scottish queen, however, was Roman 
Catholic. She had married the French king Erancis 11. and 
on his death returned to Scotland to rule. She wished to 
restore there the Koman Catholic religion, but the influence of 
Knox was too strong to permit this. She was the great-grand- 
daughter of Henry VII., and thus a dangerous rival of Eliza- 
beth ; for she had unusual beauty and charm of manner, and 
her views and purposes made her the natural rallying point for 
the Catholics of both kingdoms. In her conduct she was not 
discreet. Having married a Scottish noble named Darnley, a 
worthless character, she grew to despise him, and, after his 
murder under suspicious circumstances, she became the wife 
of Bothwell, who had been the chief person concerned in the 
plot for the murder of her husband. Her subjects rebelled 
against her and she was obliged to abdicate. She fled to Eng- 
land for protection, but Elizabeth took the side of the Scottish 
people and Mary was shut up in prison. 

Even in prison Mary was a very dangerous rival of the 
queen ; for she was a Catholic and the heir to the throne, and 
as such she became the center of Catholic plots. There were 
many people in England who would have been glad to see 
Elizabeth put out of the way and Mary installed in her place. 
For these reasons it was a matter of policy on the part of 
Elizabeth to keep a close watch on her rival. 

To the Protestants of England every Catholic appeared as a 
possible conspirator, and there was some reason for this, be- 
cause, in 1570, the pope excommunicated the queen and ab- 
solved all her subjects from their oath of allegiance. Many 
plots were formed among the Catholics, but they were all dis- 
covered and numerous persons were put to death. 

Execution of Mary. — Finally a young Englishman named 



872 GENERAL HISTORY 

Babington planned to assassinate Elizabeth and release Mary 
from prison. The plot was detected, and its author and his 
accomplices were executed. Here was a chance to bring Mary 
to trial on the ground of conspiracy. Historians do not agree 
as to the degree of her guilt, but the commissioners by whom 
she was tried condemned her to death, and she was executed 
February 8, 1587, displaying marked heroism on the scaffold. 

The Spanish Armada. — Philip II. of Spain at once determined 
to avenge the execution of Mary Stuart. Moreover, he was 
angry with Elizabeth for the aid which she had rendered to 
his rebellious subjects in the Netherlands and was bent on 
overthrowing the Reformation in England. In 1588, after 
extensive preparations, one of the largest fleets that a Christian 
nation had ever sent to sea sailed from the mouth of the Tagus 
against England. Its command was in the hands of the Duke 
of Medina Sidonia. 

There was great excitement and alarm in England, for the 
country was ill-prepared to meet so formidable an attack. In 
the presence of this danger all classes united, even the Cath- 
olics flocking to the royal standard in defense of the nation. 
With a fleet very inferior in point of numbers to the Armada, 
but commanded by some of the ablest seamen of the age, namely, 
Admiral Howard as commander in chief, and Drake, Hawkins, 
and Frobisher as his lieutenants, the English set sail to meet 
the Spanish. 

Destruction of the Armada. — The Armada appeared off the 
coast of England in July, 1588. The English vessels, being of 
smaller size and fewer in number, did not venture on an open 
combat, but contented themselves with harassing the Span- 
iards as they advanced. Their light build and rapidity in 
action gave the English ships an advantage and by means of 
fire ships many of the Spanish vessels were destroyed. After 
some desultory fighting an attack was made on the Spanish 
fleet, inflicting severe loss. The Armada then sailed north- 
ward, hoping to escape by passing around to the north of the 
British Isles, but ill luck had followed it from the first. When 



ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 373 

tlie Spaniards reached the northern waters, they were dashed 
by storms on the Scottish and Irish shores. In all, nearly two 
thirds of their vessels, with almost one half of their men, were 
lost or captnred. 

Decline of Spain. — This great victory raised England to a 
high place among maritime nations and dealt a blow to Spain 
from which she did not recover for many years. From this 
time, in fact, the prestige of Spain began to decline. Philip 
had worked at this project for five years and it had proved 
an utter failure, and the remaining years of Elizabeth's reign 
were, so far as her foreign policy was concerned, years of 
uninterrupted success. An English fleet dared to sail up the 
river Tagus, and another attacked and pillaged the Spanish city 
of Cadiz. 

The Religious Policy of Elizabeth. — Although Elizabeth her- 
self never showed any especial religious zeal, her reign was 
marked by considerable religious persecution ; for the policy of 
the time was to enforce absolute uniformity in religious belief. 
Persecutions were directed first against the Catholics because 
they could not accept the doctrines of the Anglican Church, or 
the supremacy of the queen in religious matters. They found 
themselves in the position of traitors to the State, and their 
persecution was on political more than on religious grounds; 
for they could not consistently, with their religious belief, 
admit the right of Elizabeth to the throne. Hundreds of them 
were put to death on account of plots or insurrections. 

The Puritans. — Another party of Christians who came in for 
a share of persecution was the Puritans. They were so called 
because they wished to purify the Church and carry the Refor- 
mation further in England. They wanted to make the Church 
of England simpler and more republican in form, and they 
hated the ceremonials and liturgy as '' badges of popery." 
They did not at first leave the Church, but used their influence 
to reform it from within. Their attempts, which were charac- 
terized by courage and persistency, brought down upon them 
the vengeance of the State. 
Colby's GEN. lusr. — 24 



374 



GENERAL HISTORY 



The Independents. — There was a third class of nonconform- 
ists, that is, of those who woukl not accept the established re- 
ligion, and these separated altogether from the Church. They 
were called Independents, and they set u^) little religious socie- 
ties of their own. They were more radical than the Puritans, 
and naturally they suffered heavily at the hands of the 
authorities. 

Commerce and Discoveries. — Elizabeth's reign was a period 
of great commercial enterprise and maritime activity. Among 

the daring adventurers 



and navigators of the time 
were Drake, Frobisher, 
Hawkins, and Raleigh. 
Sir Francis Drake was 
a brilliant adventurer. 
He sailed to the Ameri- 
can colonies of Spain in 
1577, forced them to pay 
large sums of money, and 
then, continuing on his 
voyage, captured many 
Spanish vessels and re- 
turned to England with a 
rich booty, after having 
completed the circuit ol 
the globe. On another 
occasion, just before the 
Armada left Spain, he 
went on a plundering expedition to the Spanish coast and 
destroyed vast supplies of stores which Philip had gathered 
for the purpose of fitting out his fleet. In the hostility be- 
tween England and Spain, many bold seamen like Drake led 
privateering expeditions and did infinite damage to Spanisl: 
commerce, waylaying Spanish vessels on the high seas and 
pillaging Spanish ports in all parts of the world. 

Of more prominent and lasting benefit Avas the work of mei 




A P.ARBER Shop in the Sixteenth Century 



ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 



375 



like Frobisher and Davis, renowned for their discoveries in the 
Arctic seas. Sir Walter Kaleigh iitted out a number of 
colonial enterprises, one of which explored the coast of North 
America, and returned to England with an account of a fair 
and fertile land which was 
called Virginia, in honor of the 
virgin queen. 

Intellectual Activity. — ^The 
vigor and originality which are 
marks of this period in English 
history appear conspicuously 
in the literature of the time. 
The Elizabethan era surpassed 
all previous periods in the bril- 
liancy of its literature, and many 
works which are still regarded 
as the greatest works of their 
kind were produced in that time. 
It would be impossible here to 
mention the names of all the 

great Elizabethan writers. It is sufficient to state that this was 
the time of Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Edmund Spenser, Sir 
Philip Sidney, Sir Francis Bacon, and Hichard Hooker. 

The Character of Elizabeth. — Elizabeth died in 1603. She 
was a woman of great power of mind and imperious character. 
She remained single through life, fearing that if she married 
she would find a master. Her will was impatient of all con- 
trol, and her pride was intense. Being inclined toward the 
Protestant faith, she was obliged to conceal her feelings during 
the reign of her sister Mary. Long practice in deceit may 
have developed the lack of truthfulness which was a marked 
trait in her character. Another fault which was evident in 
her life was her vanity. She would listen to the grossest 
flattery with keen pleasure, and her favor was often won by the 
unworthy by playing on this weakness in her character. She 
>vas^ moreover, a person o* violent passion and impetuous temper. 




^^AKESPEARE 



376 GENERAL HISTORY 

Nevertheless she had many fine qualities. Few kings have 
shown a higher courage than hers, or a more skillful statecraft. 
In spite of her headstrong will, she knew how to yield when 
occasion demanded it. For instance, when people complained 
of her abuse of power in granting monopolies to her favorites, 
she gave up the practice. When she yielded, she did so gra- 
ciously and fully, not grudgingly as if by compulsion, and her 
concessions won her many friends. She chose for her ministers 
the ablest men of the times, but her own wisdom sometimes 
surpassed that of her counselors. Whatever her faults, she 
won and retained the affection of her subjects to a remarkable 
degree, even among those who had the best reason for hating 
her. A curious illustration of this ai3pears in the story of a 
Puritan Nonconformist who was condemned to mutilation for 
his religious views. When one hand was cut off, he waved 
the stump in the air, shouting " Long live the queen." 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

England in the Sixteenth Centurv. — The Period. — p]dward VI.: 
The Triumph of Protestantism. Lady Jane Grey. — Mary Tudor : 
The Restoration of Catholicism. Persecutions. — Loss of Calais. — 
Elizabeth: Her Attitude toward the Religious Question. — Mary 
Queen of Scots : Her Character. Her Marriage with Darnley. Her 
Flight to England and Imprisonment. Catholic Plots against Eliza- 
beth. The Trial and Conviction of Mary. Execution of Mary. — 
The Spanish Armada. — Destruction of the Armada. — Decline of 
Spain. — The Religious Policy of Elizabeth: The Attempt to enforce 
Absolute Uniformity, — The Puritans. — The Independents. — Com- 
merce and Discoveries: Drake, Frobisher, Hawkins, and Raleigh. — 
Intellectual Activity: Elizabeth and Literature. — The Character of 
Elizabeth : Her Faults. Her Good Qualities and Ability. 



CHAPTER LI 

THE UEV^OLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 

The Netherlands. — The ISTetherlancls, comprising the strip of 
low country along the coast of western Europe, now divided 
into the two states of Belgium and the Netherlands (Holland), 
consisted of a number of little provinces all united under the 
government of Spain. This region was for its size the richest 
country in Europe during the sixteenth century. In their early 
history the provinces had been subject to Germany or France. 
Later they passed under the control of the house of Burgundy, 
and finally by marriage passed to the house of Hapsburg, be- 
coming the inheritance of Charles V. On the death of Charles 
v., his son Philip IL, as king of Spain, became the sovereign 
of the Ketherlands. 

There was a marked difference between the northern and 
southern provinces. The northern part, corresponding to the 
kingdom of Holland to-day, was chiefly Teutonic. In the 
south the old tribe called the Belgae had lived in Roman 
times, and in this region the Celtic element was predominant. 

Charles V. and the Netherlands. — Charles V. had used great 
severity in crushing out heresy in the provinces, where the 
Reformation had taken root, but being a Fleming by birth, he 
had sympathy with the natives, and in all respects, save in 
matters of religion, he governed them with a fair degree of 
justice. Moreover, he seemed to look upon them as his coun- 
trymen, and filled many of the highest offices in his gift with 
Flemings. He had the commercial interests of the country at 
heart also, and did much to open up new fields to trade. 

Philip II. and the Netherlands. — Philip II,, the bigoted and 
morose successor of Charles, departed in some important re- 
spects from the policy of his father. He offended the pride of 
the nobles in the provinces, by refusing to take them into his 
counsel. In dealing with the Netherlands, he seemed to have 

377 



378 GENERAL HISTORY 

but one purpose, and that was to uproot heresy, at whatever 
cost. His whole policy was of a kind to arouse the hatred of 
his subjects, and it comprised no features that could compen- 
sate for the wrongs which they were obliged to endure. He 
established new bishoprics in the country, stationed Spaniards 
in the chief cities, and gave the important offices to foreigners. 

The 'Beggars.* — After ruling personally in the Netherlands 
for a while, Philip placed the government in the hands of his 
half-sister, Margaret of Parma. During her rule, which lasted 
from 1559 to 1567, the grievances of the natives became intol- 
erable. Her adviser was Granvelle, a man devoted to Philip 
and bitterly hostile to the Protestants. Tlie measures against 
the Protestants finally aroused such intense opposition among 
the nobles that Granvelle was recalled, and Margaret showed 
a willingness to compromise. 

Before any agreement was reached, how^ever, the people, 
wdio were impatient of delay, broke out in revolt. The nobles 
could not restrain them. They attacked the churches, destroyed 
the images, and overthrew the altars. These excesses merely 
angered Philip, and drove him to harsher measures. In the 
meantime, a body of deputies had come to Margaret with a 
petition, setting forth the wrongs of the country and begging 
for their redress. To reassure the frightened regent, one of 
the counselors remarked that the petitioners were only " beg- 
gars." The word was taken up by the party of reform, and 
thenceforth its members were styled Beggars. 

Alva's Government. — On Margaret's failure, Philip made up 
his mind that he would send to the Netherlands a governor 
w4io would bring the people to their senses. He declared that 
he would maintain the Catholic faith in the provinces at any 
cost. Alva w^as an able general, and a man without scruple 
and without mercy. He brought with him to the Netherlands 
a large body of the best troops of Spain. His appearance w^as 
the signal for many of the more prudent leaders of the Protes- 
tants to withdraw. Counts Egmont and Horn ventured to re- 
main, but they paid the penalty of their daring with their lives. 



THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 



379 



Alva set up in the Netherlands a special tribunal, whose re- 
markable effectiveness in carrying out the policy of the govern- 
ment earned for it the title of the Council of Blood. Thousands 
of persons were executed, still more were robbed of their prop- 
erty, and an even larger number left the country. Besides 
this, an enormous tax was levied on merchandise, resulting in 
the almost complete destruction of the Flemish trade. 

Meanwhile, the party of the Beggars had planned forcible 
resistance to the Spanish ruler, and the cruelty of Alva drove 
many to their side. At first their activity was confined to 
naval warfare. They captured the city of Briel, and in so 
doing saved the lives of the burgesses of Brussels, who, having 
started an unsuccessful revolt, were captured and about to be 
hanged. Immediately after the seizure of Briel, the provinces 
of Holland and Zealand took up arms (1572). Thus began the 
long struggle between the provinces and Spain, known in his- 
tory as the Revolt of the Netherlands. 

William of Orange. — William, Prince of 



William the Silent,' was the natural leader 



Orange, called 
of the Nether- 



lands at this crisis, and he 
was chosen by Holland and 
Zealand as their governor. 
He was the determined foe of 
Spanish tyranny, and his 
strength of mind and far- 
sighted statesmanship gave 
promise of success. Yet, for 
the little country of the Neth- 
erlands to stand out against 
the mighty power of Spain 
would have seemed fool- 
hardy, had it not been for 
the fact that the Protestants of Germany, England, and France 
could be relied upon for aid. In military strength and in 
the brilliancy of generals, Spain had greatly the advantage. 
Her armies ' were commanded successively by the greatest 




William the 



380 GENERAL HISTORY 

soldiers of the time, — Don John of Austria (1576-1578) and 
after him Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma. Against their 
skill was pitted the high courage and inflexible will of William, 
who, like our Washington, was greatest in the time of difficulty 
and defeat. 

Siege of Leyden. — Alva's unscrupulous and cruel govern- 
ment had failed completely. He was recalled and replaced by 
a new governor named Requesens (1573). The latter was 
more conciliatory than Alva, and tried to win friends by favor 
as well as by force. 

In 1574 took place the famous siege of Leyden, which is 
interesting as showing the means which the Netherlanders 
employed in defense. The siege had been began by Alva's 
army and was continued by the troops of liequesens. The 
Spanish troops closed their lines around the city, soon shut- 
ting off all means of obtaining provisions, and the Prince of 
Oran*ge tried in vain to throw troops within the walls to aid 
the garrison. At last the plan of cutting the dikes and flood- 
ing the land around the city was proposed. This was done, 
and the level country in the vicinity was flooded for miles 
around. This made it possible to float ships carrying provi- 
sions. The water, however, became too shallow as the ships 
approached the city, and it seemed as if it would l)e impossible 
to reach the inhabitants ; but, a heavy wind arising from the 
north and carrying high waves across the broken dikes, the 
vessels were carried nearer to the walls. They Avere again 
stranded and many of the citizens in despair were urging sur- 
render, but again the waters poured in, driven by the wind, 
and the ships were carried into the canals of the city. 

Pacification of Ghent. — In the southern provinces Requesens 
was more successful, but he died in 1576, and when his power- 
ful hand was withdrawn his troops committed a terrible mas- 
sacre known as the ' Spanish Fury.' In this it is said mere 
people perished than were killed in the massacre of St. Barthol- 
omew in Paris (page 389). The terror and hatred aroused by 
this act led to the formation of a union between all the seventeen 



THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 381 

provinces. This was called the Pacification of Ghent (1576). 
At the head of the union was William of Orange. 

Union of Utrecht. — The Pacification of Ghent did not last 
long. The provinces differed in religion, the northern ones 
being in favor of the reformed faith and the southern being 
generally Catholic. Don John of Austria was in favor of 
peace and tried to win over the Protestants to a compromise, 
but the distrust of the latter prevented this. The interests of 
the south and the north were opposed not only in matters of 
religion, but in matters of trade ; for the southern provinces 
were largely manufacturing states, and the seven northern 
provinces Avere commercial. 

The southern provinces broke away from the union and 
acknowledged Philip II. as king. The seven northern prov- 
inces, consisting of Holland, Guelderland, Utrecht, Zealand, 
Friesland, Overyssel, and Groningen, formed the so-called 
Union of Utrecht in 1579, making themselves into a federal 
republic, in which each governed its local affairs and was 
represented in the general Federal Assembly. The governor 
general, or stadth older, was William of Orange. This was the 
beginning of the Dutch Republic. Two years after the forma- 
tion of the union, the States-General, or Federal Assembly of the 
united provinces, solemnly renounced the authority of Spain. 

Death of "William of Orange. — Spain was as far as ever from 
subduing the northern provinces. The credit for their long 
and successful resistance belongs almost wholly to William 
of Orange, and naturally the Spanish monarch made him the 
object of his bitterest hatred. William had proved himself 
above all selfish motives by refusing to accept, from the 
Spanish court, offers of dignities and wealth, if he would 
abandon the cause. After the failure of these attempts at 
bribery, Philip devised a plan of assassination. He published 
a ban, declaring the prince an outlaw and promising money 
and noble rank to any one who would kill him. Six attempts 
were made on the life of the prince, and finally he was shot 
in his own house. 



382 GENERAL HISTORY 

Character of William. — William of Orange is. one of the 
heroic characters of history. He was not a brilliant general, 
but he knew how to wait and turn his reverses to account. 
His prudence and foresight were of a high order and his 
personal courage was remarkable. After the shameful edict 
in which a price was put upon his head, he published an 
< apology,' in which he attacked the king in the most scathing 
manner and made fun of his attempts to frighten him; and 
although he knew that his life was in danger, he showed neither 
fear nor irresolution. His habit of keeping his own counsel, 
which at times amounted to a fault and led him into a course 
bordering on deceit, gained for him the surname of the 
'Silent' 

Progress of the War. — In the early part of the war the 
Netherlanders were disappointed in their hope of aid from 
the Protestants of the neighboring countries. Later, however, 
aid came from England. After the murder of the Prince of 
Orange Elizabeth became an open ally of the Dutch and sent 
to their relief, among others, her famous captain, the chivalrous 
Sir Philip Sidney, who fell at the siege of Zutphen, in 1586. 
France also entered the lists against Philip and the Spaniard 
was hard pressed both on land and sea. The havoc which the 
English wrought in the commerce of Spain has already been 
mentioned. The Dutch fleet seized many of the East Indian 
possessions of Spain, and the English and Dutch together 
destroyed the Spanish fleet in the bay of Cadiz. 

The Independence of the Netherlands. — The struggle dragged 
on for several years, and came to an end from the exhaustion 
of the parties to it. In 1609 a treaty w^as formed, acknowledg- 
ing the independence of the united provinces of the Nether- 
lands — that is, the Dutch provinces, or Holland. This it did 
in effect, but nominally it was regarded by Spain as a truce for 
twelve years. Spain, however, never regained her authority 
over the provinces, and, by the Peace of Westphalia (1648), the 
freedom of Holland was formally acknowledged. 

Growth of Dutch Commerce. — The downfall of Spain's 



THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 383 

tyranny over the Netherlands was followed by a period of 
remarkable improvement in the provinces. This was far more 
marked in the northern provinces, which had regained their 
independence, than in the southern provinces, Avhich had given 
up the fight for liberty. The Dutch became the foremost 
commercial people in the world and were the equals, if not the 
superiors, of all other races in regard to their progress in 
arts, in literature, and in the spread of education. The work 
of building up a great colonial empire was begun and colonies 
were planted in the most remote parts of the world. The 
West India Company planted a colony on Manhattan Island 
(afterwards New York), and the Dutch had settlements in the 
East Indies and the distant islands of the Pacific. This 
maritime activity, which had always been characteristic of the 
Dutch, continued throughout the sixteenth century and has 
not been relaxed to the present day ; for now Holland, though 
among the smallest of European powers, is one of the greatest 
in respect to the extent of her colonial possessions. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Revolt of the Netherlands. — The Netherlands : Contrast 
between the Northern and Southern Provinces. — Charles V. and 
the Netherlands. —Philip IF. and the Netherlands: Abuses of his 
Government. — The ' Req:2,ars' : Margaret of Parma and Granvelle. 
Popular Outbreaks. — Alva's Government : His Cruelty. The Coun- 
cil of Blood. The Revolt of the Netherlands. — William of Orange. 
— Siege of Leyden: The Recall of Alva. The Administration of 
Requesens. The Narrow Escape of Leyden. — Pacification of 
Ghent. — Union of Utrecht: Suppression of Southern Provinces. — 
The Union of tlie Northern Provinces. — Death of William of 
Orange. — Character of William : The 'Apology.' — Progress of the 
War. —The Independence of the Netherlands: The Truce of 1009. 
Formal Acknowledgment of Dutch Independence in 1048. — Growth 
of Dutch Commerce. 



CHAPTER LII 

FRANCE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 

French Protestantism. — The reformers in France were termed 
Huguenots. They were not followers of Luther, but adopted 
the sterner faith preached by John Calvin of Geneva. The 
new movement had made some headway during the reign of 
Francis L, but its progress was more rapid under that king's 
successor, Henry II. Between 1555 and 1559, about two thou- 
sand Huguenot churches were founded in France, and in the 
southern and western part of the country the new faith was 
especially strong. The Eeformation w^as not so popular in 
France as in Germany ; partly because the lack of central power 
in Germany gave the movement a better chance than in France, 
where the king was more absolute, and partly because France 
had not suffered so much from the ecclesiastical grievances of 
which the Germans complained. Calvinism in France seemed 
to appeal more to the nobility or the well-to-do classes than to 
the lower orders of the people, who remained devoted to the 
old faith. It was not a great popular movement in France 
and w^as there identified to some extent with a political aim : 
namely, the purpose of securing greater independence for the 
nobles. 

Persecution of the Huguenots. — The Huguenots suffered 
the usual fate of heretics. They were put to death in large 
numbers and the spread of their doctrines was prohibited. 
These persecutions went on during the reign of Francis I. 
(1515-1547) and of Henry II. (1547-1559). The time and 
energy which each of these monarchs had to devote to foreign 
wars gave the Protestants an occasional respite. Francis, as 
we have seen, w\as largely occupied in the wars with Charles V. 
and Henry II. had a Spanish war on his hands which came tc 
an end in 1559, but in the intervals of peace the Protestants 
suffered very severely. Soon after the conclusion of the wai 

;]84 



FRANCE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 385 

with Spain, Henry II. was killed in a tournament at Paris 
(1559). 

Catherine de* Medici. — Henry II. was succeeded by Francis II., 
then only sixteen years of age. During his brief reign (1559- 
15G0) and the reigns of his two successors, Charles IX. (1560- 
1574) and Henry III. (1574-1589), the most important figure 
at the French court was Catherine de' Medici, the widow of 
Henry II. She was an Italian woman of remarkable ability, 
but absolutely without principle. She was consumed by ambi- 
tion, and although her policy was in the main favorable to 
the Catholics, it is probable that selfish motives rather than 
religious zeal dictated her course. The three kings just named 
were among the most incompetent of French sovereigns, and 
(Catherine's life was spent in plots and intrigues for the pur- 
pose of getting all power into the hands of herself and her 
friends. To accomplish this, she was ready to use any means, 
however base or cruel. 

Opposing Parties. — The leaders of the strict Catholic party 
were the heads of the Guise family; namely, Francis, Duke of 
Guise, a soldier of some renown, and Charles, Cardinal of Lor- 
raine, his younger brother. They were the uncles of Mary 
Stuart, who was the wife of the young king Francis II., and 
through her they hoped to rule France. The chiefs of the 
Protestant party were the two Bourbon princes, Antony, King 
of Navarre, and Louis, Prince of Conde. They belonged to 
the royal family and were heirs to the throne after the broth- 
ers of Francis 11. An abler and more sincere leader of the 
Protestants was Admiral Coligny, who for many years had 
been an earnest Protestant. 

The plots and counterplots of the two parties were very 
complicated, and there were many who shifted their allegiance 
from one to the other from motives of self-interest. The strict 
Catholic party looked finally to Spain for aid. Catherine hated 
the Huguenots, but she feared the Guises, and so her policy 
was wavering. 

The Pplitiques. — There was a third party in France, not so 



386 GENERAL HISTORY 

strong as either of the others, but holding opinions which tri 
umphed in the end. The representative of this party wa 
L'Hopital, the greatest lawyer in France. He favored tolers 
tion and a regard for the true national interests of France 
He wished religious disputes compromised and the people o 
all classes united to make France a great nation. So the aiii 
of this party was chiefly political and not religious, and fron 
this fact it was termed the party of the Politiques. It wa 
largely composed of moderate Catholics. L'Hopital was on 
of the most enlightened men of his time. He advocated tolei 
ance in an age when people scarcely knew the meaning of th 
word, and he did France a great service in saving her from th 
terrors of the Inquisition. 

The Conspiracy of Amboise. — This was an attempt of som 
Protestants to overthrow the power of the Guises and plac 
the young king in the charge of the Protestant chief, th 
Prince of Conde. The Guises discovered the 'plot in time am 
seized a great number of conspirators, as well as many innc 
cent persons. Innocent and guilty alike were put to deatli 
and Conde and the king of Navarre were arrested on th 
charge of taking part in the conspiracy. Before their tria 
took place, however. King Francis died, and this destroyed th 
power of the Guises ; for since Charles TX., the brother o 
Francis who succeeded, was only ten years of age, the queei 
mother acted as regent. She was glad of a chance to weakei 
the power of the Guises, and Conde and the king of Navarr 
were released. 

The Outbreak of Civil War. — Early in the reign of Charles IX 
(January, 1562), the Edict of St. Germain was issued, grantin; 
freedom of worship under certain restrictions to the Protes 
tants. This concession was largely due to the policy of thi 
queen regent, for Catherine wished to preserve a balance o 
parties in order to keep the power in her own hands. For th( 
first time the Huguenots gained an official recognition of thei 
creed, but they made a bad use of their success. The;; 
attacked the Catholic churches, broke into the convents 



FRANCE IN THE SIX FEENTII CENTURY 387 

destroyed the images, and in every way insulted Catholic sen- 
timents. Moreover, the Catholics were opposed to the spirit 
of the Edict of St. Germain, and determined to prevent its 
liberal provisions from being carried out. In 1562 the Duke of 
Guise, traveling. Jthrough the country at the head of a band of 
armed followers, came upon a body of Protestants worshiping 
in a barn in the village of Vassy. They fell upon this little 
congregation and killed forty of them. The massacre of Vassy 
brought on the civil war. 

The Period of Civil War. — Civil Avar in France lasted from 
1562 to 1598 ; that is, from the massacre of Vassy to the Treaty 
of Vervins. During this time fighting was not continuous, but 
was interrupted by short intervals of peace. Between the 
dates mentioned eight wars occurred. These years of strife 
naturally fall into three periods : first, the period of warfare 
before the formation of the Catholic League, including three 
short wars; second, the transition period in which occurred 
the massacre of St. Bartholomew; and third, the period of the 
league, comprising the wars between the organized Catholic 
party and the party of the Politiques, the Huguenots being 
comparatively unimportant in this last period. 

The First Period of Civil Strife (1562-1570). — King Antony 
of Navarre, who, though somewhat faltering in his attitude, 
had been counted with the Protestants, went over to the 
Catholics. He was killed in battle and was succeeded by his 
son, Henry of Navarre, then a child nine years of age. This 
young prince was a possible claimant to the French throne, and 
the firm Protestant faith of his mother made it probable that 
he would become the natural leader of the Huguenots. The 
chief generals on their side, however, were at this time the 
Prince of Conde and Admiral Coligny. 

It is not necessary here to give the details of all the battles 
of these wars. At the battle of Dreux (1562) Conde was cap- 
tured by the Catholics ; but while besieging Orleans, soon after- 
wards, the Duke of Guise was assassinated in his camp. 
At the battle of Jarnac (1569), in the last of the three wars, 



388 GENERAL HISTORY 

Conde was defeated and killed. The intervals of peace wer 
filled with intrigues and murders, and most of the great leader 
on each side fell in battle or at the hands of assassins. 0] 
the Protestant side Coligny, under the nominal command o 
the young Henry of Navarre, continued the war. There wer 
no decisive results, but the Peace of St. Germain was favorabl 
to the Huguenots. It gave them a limited toleration, restore( 
forfeited property, and placed in their hands four fortifiec 
cities as places of refuge. 

The Transition Period. — There was an interval of two year 
between the close of these three wars and the massacre of St 
Bartholomew, which caused a renewal of hostilities. In th< 
first part of this period the young king, Charles IX., was in 
clined to the side of the Huguenots on account of his alarm a 
the schemes of Philip II. of Spain, who, aided by the pope 
was planning to place Mary Stuart on the throne of Englani 
and Scotland, and to put down the revolt in the Netherlands 
If he succeeded, he Avould gain so great an influence in Europ< 
that France would be brought wholly under his control. 

To offset this, Charles planned to unite with the Huguenot: 
and with all the enemies of Philip in Europe. To this em 
a double marriage was planned; first, the marriage of hii 
younger brother to Elizabeth of England, and second, tin 
marriage of his sister, Margaret of Valois, to Henry of Na 
varre. He would thus have a great Protestant state in allianc( 
with him abroad, and the Protestant party won over to hi? 
side in France, and this, it was thought, Avould so strengtliei 
him that he would be able to thwart the designs of Philip 
Admiral Coligny favored both these plans, but Catherine, tli( 
queen mother, opposed them. Her idea was to crush ou' 
religious dissent in France by any means, however foul. Tin 
alliance with Elizabeth was not made, but the marriage l)e 
tween Henry of Navarre and Margaret of Valois took place 
A large body of the Protestants followed Coligny to Paris 
and, feeling that their cause had triumphed, they did noi 
conceal their satisfaction. Coligny's influence over the kin^ 



FRANCE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 389 

increased, and tlie strict Catholic party, as represented by 
Catherine de' Medici, the Duke of Anjou, and tlie Guise family, 
were enraged. Catherine and Anjou planned to assassinate 
the admiral, but his assailant succeeded only in wounding him. 
Then Catherine went to the king, told him that she and Anjou 
had planned the deed, and explained that the only safety for 
himself and the fi'iends of the Catholic faith lay in striking a 
deadly blow at the Huguenots; for she told him that they were 
already armed to avenge their leader. The weak-minded king 
listened to this advice, and the massacre of St. Bartholomew 
was planned. 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew. — None of the Protestants 
seemed to have the slightest suspicion of the plot, which had 
been developed with absolute secrecy. The massacre was ar- 
ranged for August 24, 1572, and at a given signal the work 
began. It is probable that the conspirators had intended to 
kill only the leaders of the Protestant party, but they had 
not taken into account the bloodthirstiness of the mob. The 
Huguenots, taken by surprise, were murdered in their beds, 
and all those on the northern side of the river Seine were 
killed. Many of those in the southern part of the city man- 
aged to escape, but when the news of the massacre in Paris 
was spread throughout France, the work was taken up in the 
provinces, and thousands of the Huguenots all over the 
country were put to death. The numbers killed are differ- 
ently estimated. In Paris alone some estimates place the 
number as high as 10,000 ; others as low as 2000. Through- 
out France it is said that from 70,000 to 100,000 Huguenots 
were killed, but these figures are probably too high ; and 
according to some writers only 22,000 were massacred. 

The Guilty Parties. — It must not be thought that the Catho- 
lic population of France was wholly in sympathy with this 
atrocious crime. There were many instances of individual 
self-sacrifice and humanity. Catholic prelates often inter- 
vened on behalf of the Protestants and saved their lives. In 
several Catholic provinces the Huguenots were unharmed. 

COLB\'s GKN. HIST. 26 



390 GENERAL HISTORY 

Nevertheless, the general attitude of the stricter Catholic part; 
was that in nnirdering the Huguenots they were performing 
a holy duty. In Paris religious hatred was in many case 
affected by motives of private revenge and of greed, and whei 
the passions of the mob were let loose, many who were no 
Huguenots were murdered by their private enemies. Debtor 
in some cases obtained a release from debt by killing thei 
creditors. 

Attitude of the King. — Of all those who took part in thi 
crime, the weak-minded and passionate Charles IX. seems t< 
have been the least responsible for his act. Under good coun 
sel he might have developed a better character, but all his lif 
he had been under the unwholesome influence of his mothei 
After the deed was done many praised him as a public bene 
factor, and when he found how favorably the public lookei 
upon the act, he declared himself the author of the massacr 
and went in state to view the corpses of the victims, whic] 
were kept for a time on exhibition. Nevertheless, his remors 
was sudden and acute. Some say that it hastened his deatli 
and there is evidence that he was a prey to superstition 
terrors. 

Responsibility for the Massacre. — On the other hand, th 
Guises were fully responsible for the act. Their family hatei 
Coligny, who, they thought, was responsible for the assassinatioi 
of the Duke of Guise early in tlie war. Moreover, their whol 
course had shown that they regarded assassination as a perfectl; 
proper means for the attainment of personal and party end 
and for years before the massacre they had dealt in murdei 
The Parisian populace seemed in hearty sympathy with thi 
policy of the Guises. 

But the guiltiest of all was Catherine. She prompted th 
massacre, won over the king, and intrigued steadily until sh 
had brought it about. There was nothing in her previou 
record at all inconsistent with this act. 

Philip II., on hearing of the massacre, wrote Charles a con 
gratulatory letter, which shows almost a feeling of envy tha 



FRANCE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 391 

he himself had not performed the deed. Finally, the Hugue- 
nots themselves were not free from responsibility in re- 
gard to the massacre. They had often shown themselves 
intolerant, contemptuous, and arrogant, and had threatened 
the king with war at home if he did not follow out their 
policy. 

Renewal of the Wars. — The massacre of St. Bartholomew 
diminished the numbers of the Huguenots, but strengthened 
their faith. It drew to their side also the moderates, as repre- 
sented by the party of the Politiques, and this party now be- 
came prominent. AVith these new allies the Protestants renewed 
the war. Thus the object of the massacre was not realized. 
In fact, after a short time, the Huguenots obtained better 
terms from the government than ever before. 

The Holy League. — In 1574 Charles IX. died and was suc- 
ceeded by his brother Henry III., who acted generally with the 
strict Catholic party. Soon afterwards the Holy League was 
formed by the Catholics, who swore to maintain the Catholic 
faith, relying for this purpose on outside aid from Spain and 
the pope. The fight now went on between the Holy League 
on the one side and the Politiques, aided by the Huguenots, 
on the other. Some consider the ten years that followed the 
death of Charles IX. as the lowest period in the history of the 
French monarchy. The weak and vicious Henry III. was a 
mere tool in the hands of the unpatriotic league. It was 
a time of intrigue, treachery, and partisan warfare. Even the 
Huguenots seemed to be animated less by religious zeal than 
by the thirst for plunder and adventure. 

Religious Attitude of Henry of Navarre. — Down to 1584 
Henry of Navarre showed little of the spirit that afterwards 
distinguished him. It was doubtful whether he would throw 
in his lot with the Catholics or the Protestants. It will be 
remembered that he had married the Catholic Margaret of 
Valois. On the death of the Duke of Anjou, the younger 
brother of Henry III., in 1584, Henry of Navarre became 
heir to the throne. He was now fired by the ambition to 



392 GENERAL HISTORY 

put an end to the disordered state of affairs and become the 
true king of France. 

As to religion, lie had little sincere faith, but would not 
become a Catholic, because it would drive away his friends, 
and because his hrst principle was toleration in religious 
matters, while the strict Catholic party were bent on crushing 
out heresy completely. His object was to become the head 
of a national party. His Catholic enemies were bound thai 
he should never come to the throne. Many political pamphlets 
were circulated discussing the question of royal succession. 
These put forth the theory that a heretic should never rule, 
in spite of hereditary claims, and the Jesuits were especiall}? 
active in pressiug this view. 

Henry III. and the League. — King Henry III. was in au 
unfortuuate position. He had to choose between joiuing the 
Huguenots, whom he hated, and submitting to the league, oi 
which he was jealous ; but finally he chose the league, forming 
a treaty with them in 1585, in which he agreed to repeal the acts 
of toleration to the Huguenots. Thus he became the head oi 
a faction rather than king of France. The pope excommuni- 
cated Henry of Navarre, declaring that he was not a lawful 
successor of the throne of France and that he was deposed 
from his throne of Navarre. 

War of the Three Henrys. — Thus arose the War of the 
Three Henrys, as it is called, from the fact that the leader? 
were Henry of Navarre, Henry III., King of France, and 
Henry, Duke of Guise. Henry of Navarre soon showed 
him.self a brave and skillful commander by his victory at 
Coutras, where he defeated an army twice the size of his own, 
The Duke of Guise, also an able general, won as great a 
success as this over the Germans, who had sent a force tc 
aid the Huguenots. Guise became an idol of the Catholics, 
The king was a nobody and was distrusted by the strict 
Catholic party. 

Assassination of Guise. — The Parisians invited Guise to come 
to the city, and the king, much against his will, was made tc 



FRANCE IN' THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 393 

appoint his rival lieutenant general of the kingdom. But in 
revenge he soon afterwards caused the assassination of Henry 
of Guise and his brother, the cardinal. This involved the king 
in a war with the league and so drove him to the side of 
Henry of Navarre. The king promised to grant toleration to 
the reformed faith, and Henry of Navarre in return declared 
himself loyal to the crown. The Huguenots and the Poli- 
tiques now rallied around the throne, and things looked 
promising for the return of perinanent peace. 

Murder of Henry III. — But the Leaguers were desperate, 
and set on foot plots for the assassination of the renegade 
king. One Jacques Clement, a half-crazy fanatic who had 
brooded over the downfall of the league, planned to murder 
the king, having first been told that such an act, while 
irregular, was not a mortal sin. Securing an interview with 
the king at St. Cloud, he suddenly stabbed him (1589). On 
his deathbed Henry III. enjoined his nobles to do their duty 
toward Henry of Navarre as their rightful king. 

Battle of Ivry. — Henry was perfectly willing to guarantee 
the security of the Catholic faith, but this was not enough 
for the league, which declared the Cardinal of Bourbon king 
of France. Philip II. of Spain, who was trying to secure 
influence over the Catholic countries of Europe, sent aid to 
the Leaguers, and on the other hand Henry received some 
auxiliaries from Elizabeth of England. The great battle of 
the war was the battle of Ivry, in 1590, where the Leaguers 
and their Spanish allies were completely routed, large numbers 
being slain and the rest scattered in all directions, leaving 
their cannon and standards in the hands -of the victors. 
Henry's success was now only a matter of time. 

Henry's Conversion. — In 1593 Henry turned Catholic. He 
was moved to do this by considerations of policy, for a Protes- 
tant on the throne of Prance would never have received the 
loyalty of his subjects. He could not hope to be a truly 
national king if he remained identified with the Protestant 
cause. Moreover, his conscience in religious matters had al- 



394 GENERAL HISTORY 

ways been somewhat lax. His faith was never strong, and h 
is said, when the subject of liis conversion arose, to have rt 
marked that a kingdom was w^ell worth the price of a masf 
His abjuration of the Protestant faith has always been blamec 
but though it reflects no credit on his character, it prepared th 
way for the return of peace and good order in France. 

Close of the War. — The war continued several years afte 
the battle of Ivry, but now that the king had joined the E-oma 
Catholic Church there was a large party in France which f avore 
loyalty and longed for the return of peace. The league bega 
to lose ground, but the war with Spain went on. In 1591 
however, Henry made a vigorous campaign, as a result c 
which Philip II. offered terms of peace. By these he recof 
nized Henry IV. as the rightful king of France, and there w^a 
a mutual restoration of the places taken during the w^ar. Thi 
was the Treaty of Vervins (1598). The long period of rel 
gious wars in France was now at an end. 

The Edict of Nantes. — Though Henry had withdrawn fror 
the Huguenot party, he had no intention of allowing the retur: 
of the old persecutions. As soon as he had secured himself o: 
the throne and brought his wars to an end, he issued the famou 
Edict of Nantes (1598). By this decree the Huguenots receivei 
practical liberty of worship. They were admitted to offices oi 
an equal footing with Catholics, and they were allow^ed to retail 
the cities which they had garrisoned. They did not gain b; 
this complete religious liberty, because they were not free t^ 
worship in all x)arts of the country. They became a distinc 
party having ample means of self-defense, but without mucl 
prospect of progress. The Edict of Xantes was a wise an( 
humane measure, and it remained in force for nearl}^ om 
hundred years. 

Henry's Government. — Henry's pi'ivate morals were lax. H( 
was self-indulgent and dissipated, ])ut as a ruler he was one o: 
the best that ever occupied the throne of France. No princt 
ever had the interest of his subjects more at heart. He founc 
the country in a wretched condition, the lands desolated, anc 



FRANCE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 



395 



the people impoverished by the long wars. The finaiic-es were 
in confusion, and the revenues were collected by untrustworthy 
agents who had absorbed a large i)art of what should have been 
given to the treasury. He placed the management of internal 




Fkeding the V 



iSixtcriitli C'entury) 



affairs in the hands of a singularly able minister named Sully, 
whose economy and skill soon brought a revival of trade and 
industries, and an increase of the revenues. Roads and canals 
were completed, commerce was promoted, colonies were sent 
out, a postal system was established, and everywhere there was 
evidence of prosperity. But before Henry had time to carry 
out all his plans for the improvement of France, he was cut 
down by an assassin. A fanatic named Ravaillac, feeling that 
he was ridding the Church of its worst enemy, stabbed the 
king in 1610. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 
France in the Sixteenth Century. — French Protestantism : Contrast 
between the Reformation in France and in Germany. — Persecution 



396 GENERAL HISTORY 

of the Huguenots. — Catherine de' Medici : Her Character and Policy, 
— Opposing Parties: The Protestants. The Catholics. — The Poli- 
tiques. — The Conspiracy of Amboise. — The Outbreak of Civil War ; 
The Edict of St. Germain. Massacre of Vassy.— The Period ol 
Civil War. —The First Period of Civil Strife: The Death of An- 
thony of Navarre. King Henry of Navarre. The Battles of Dreu> 
and Jarnac. Peace of St. Germain. — The Transition Period : Th( 
Schemes of Philip II. The Plans of the French Court. The Mar- 
riage of Margaret Valois to Henry of Navarre. The Attempt tc 
assassinate Coligny. — Massacre of St. Bartholomew: The Numbei 
killed. — The Guilty Parties. — Attitude of the King. — Responsi- 
bility for the Massacre : The Guises. The Parisian Populace, 
Philip II. of Spain. — Renewal of the Wars. — The Holy League 
Henry IIL — Religious Attitude of Henry of Navarre : Tlie Ambitior 
of Henry of Navarre. — Henry 111. .and the League: Difficulty oj 
Henry the Third's Position. — War of the three Henrys. — Assassi- 
nation of Guise : Alliance between Henry of Navarre and Henr;y 
III. — Murder of Henry IIL — Battle of Ivry. — Henry's Con- 
version. — Close of the War. — The Edict of Nantes: Henry IV 
grants the Huguenots Freedom of Worship. — Henry's Government 
His Moral Character. His Policy. The Administration of Sully 
The Assassination of Henry IV. 



CHAPTER LIII 

THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 

The Thirty Years' War. — The Thirty Years' War began ii 
1018 and was closed by the Peace of Westphalia in 1048 
During this time the states of Germany, where the war waj 
for the most part carried on, were the scene of sieges, battles 
and all the horrors of war. The war took on in its later yearj 
a European character and all the great powers were engaged 
It was the last great struggle for power between the religioui 
sects. 

Causes. — Besides the natural antagonism between the Catho 
lies and the Protestants, there was a special aggravation oi 



THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 397 

religious hatred in the clause of the Peace of Augsburg called 
the Ecclesiastical Reservation. In this, as we have seen, it 
was provided that any ecclesiastical prince on turning Protes- 
tant must give up the lands and authority pertaining to the 
othce. The treaty as a whole was not satisfactory to either 
Protestants or Catholics, and this clause seemed especially 
unjust to the Protestants, who in many cases disregarded it 
and retained the ecclesiastical property which by the terms 
of the law should have been given over to the Catholics. 
Many of the Catholic bishoprics in the northern part of Ger- 
many were retained by Protestants. 

The Evangelical Union. — The emperors Ferdinand I. (1555- 
1564) and Maximilian II. (1564-1570) Avere tolerant rulers 
and did not persecute the Protestants. During their reigns, 
therefore, the Protestant faith made rapid progress. But on 
the accession of Kudolph II. (1576-1612) the imperial policy 
was changed, as he was an intolerant devotee to Catholic inter- 
ests. In Austria he used harsh measures against the Prot- 
estants, and in 1607 the Catholic Duke of Bavaria seized the 
free Protestant city of Don au worth and brought it directly 
under his own rale. The Protestants throughout Germany were 
alarmed, and in 1608 they formed the Evangelical Union, a 
league of defense like the older League of Smalkald. The 
Union, however, did not comprise all the Protestant states. 

Periods of the War. — There were three periods or stages in 
the Thirty Years' War. The first was the period of the 
Bohemian struggle, from 1618 to 1629. The second stage of 
the war, from 1629 to 1632, was marked by the interference 
of Sweden, under the leadership of the brave king, Gustavus 
Adolphus. The third and closing period was from 1632 to 
1648. At this stage France, as well as Sweden, took part in 
the struggle, which now was waged for political objects and 
territorial gains as much as for religious ends. 

The Bohemian Period. — The oppressions of Ferdinand of 
Bohemia led the Protestants of that state to revolt. They 
appealed to the emperor in vain, and in their anger at his 



398 GENERAL HISTORY 

neglect of their demands they went to Prague, entered the 
royal castle there, and threw two of the imperial advisers out 
of the window. The war began in 1618. The Bohemian king, 
Ferdinand, soon after the opening ( f the war, was chosen 
emperor of Germany. Backed by the Catholic or Holy League, 
which was formed in 1609 as an offset to the Evangelical 
Union, and receiving aid from other sources as well, he was by 
far the stronger party. The Protestants hoped to obtain aid 
from James 1. of England and his son-in-law Frederick V., 
who was chosen by the Bohemians as their king; but in this 
they were disappointed, and Ferdinand, invading Bohemia, 
quickly crushed out the Protestant revolt. The Bohemian 
king, Frederick V., now became a fugitive, and Denmark, 
England, and Holland took his part. 

Tilly and Wallenstein. — The chief leaders of the Protes- 
tants were Christian IV., king of Denmark, Conut Mansfeld, 
and Christian of Aidiult. Of the Catholics tlie two great 
generals were Tilly, who commanded the force of the Holy 
League, and Wallenstein, who led the imperial army. Wal- 
lenstein was by far the most successful general in the early 
period of the war. He was a Bohemian noble of great 
ambition and energy, but as unscrupulous as he was brilliant. 
He collected an army at his own cost and his plan was that 
the army should support itself by plunder. This plan of a 
self-supporting army relieved the imperial treasury, but re- 
sulted in a ruthless destruction of property; for the troops 
devastated the country they passed through and on conquer- 
ing a city gave themselves up to every kind of violence and 
excess. 

The Protestants were worsted in almost every encounter; 
for they had no one to compare in ability with the Catholic 
generals. Wallenstein overthrew the Protestants under Mans- 
feld at Dessau, and Tilly defeated Christian of Denmark at 
Lutter. The Protestant states were overrun by imperial 
armies ; their cities were seized, and several of the members 
of their league were- forced to join the Catholics. 



^HE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 



399 



Edict of Restitution. — Peace was finally formed at Ltibeck 
(1629), and the emperor tried to settle the status of the two 
parties by the Edict of Restitution, issued in the same year. 
This gave back to the Catholics the lands which they claimed 
were theirs in accordance with the Peace of Augsburg. As a 
consequence, it dispossessed many of the Protestant ecclesi- 
astics, and its harshness was such that the Protestants were 
bound to oppose it and renew the war. 

Second Period of the War (1629-1632). — The central figure 
of this second period of the Thirty Years' War was Gustavus 
Adolphus of Sweden, a man of great strength and sincerity of 
character and remarkable military skill. Just at the time 
when this new^ foe was preparing to attack them, the Catholics 
lost the service of their ablest leader. Wallenstein, having 
incurred the jealousy of Ferdinand, as w^ell as the hatred of 
the people, on account of the outrages committed by his troops, 
was forced to leave the service of the emperor. Many of his 
troops and officers retired with him ; the rest joined the impe- 
rial army, under the command of Tilly. 

Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. — Gustavus Adolphus entered 
Germany at the head of 16,000 men. Among some of the 
Protestants there Avas a reluc- 
tance to cooperate with this 
new ally; for they distrusted 
his motives, especially in re- 
gard to northern Germany, 
where it was known that he 
had dreams of making him- 
self the master of the Baltic 
Sea. Nevertheless, many of 
the hesitating Protestants ral- 
lied to his side after the siege 
and sack of Magdeburg, in 
1631. The taking of this 
city by the troops of Tilly was marked by the most brutal 
massacre and pillage. Women and children were murdered. 




Gustavus Auuli'iius 



400 GENERAL HISTORY 

and the town was burned to the ground. It is said that some 
30,000 people perished at this time. 

Saxony now joined the side of the Swedish king, who, in 
1631, encountered Tilly on the battlefield of Leipzig. Here 
Gustavus completely overthrew his enemy, and when Tilly 
again tried to check his advance into southern Germany, Gus- 
tavus won another battle, in which Tilly was slain. The suc- 
cesses of Gustavus led the emperor to restore Wallenstein to 
the command (1632), and Wallenstein accepted the leadership 
on condition that he was to have absolute control of the army. 

Battle of Liitzen. — The next great event of the war was the 
battle of Liitzen (1632). Wallenstein, having quickly gathered 
a large army, drove the Saxon invaders from Bohemia and 
himself invaded Saxony, where on the field of Liitzen he joined 
battle with the Swedes. Again Gustavus Adolphus won the 
fight, but fell at the moment of victory. His death was the 
severest loss that the Protestants sustained during the war, 
for he was by far the most skillful of their leaders. As a 
result of this second period of the war, the advantage was 
mainly on the side of the Protestants. 

Third Stage of the War (i 632-1648). — Wallenstein, though 
he had been reinstated, was still an object of suspicion to the 
emperor. He was thought to be aiming at the crown of Bohe- 
mia, and to be in secret communication with the Protestants. 
Ferdinand ordered him to be arrested as a traitor. His agents 
dared not do this openly, but treacherously attacked him and 
put him to death (1634). 

In this third period of the war France played a part. Eiclie- 
lieu was now directing the policy of the French throne, and his 
policy had for its main aim in foreign affairs the increase of 
the power of France, and the humbling of the house of Aus- 
tria. Sweden continued to take the part of the Protestants, 
and the war became a conflict between the German Empire 
on the one hand and France and Sweden on the other, rather 
than a mere contest between the states of Germany for reli- 
gious mastery. 



THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 401 

Treaty of Westphalia (1648). — When all parties to the strug- 
gle were exhausted, overtures were made for peace, which was 
formed by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. This treaty had 
a twofold character. In the first place it pronounced upon the 
religious question, and in the second place it settled territorial 
boundaries and political control. 

Religious Provisions. — As to the religious provisions of the 
treaty, they recognized three forms of religious belief; namely, 
the Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinistic. These were placed 
upon the same footing. The religion of a state was still to be 
the religion of its prince, and he had the right of banishing 
those of another faith, but it was required that he should first 
give them three years' notice before expelling them from the 
country. Substautially it gave the three religious parties civil 
equality and religious freedom. In respect to the point of 
dispute in the Treaty of Augsburg, it was agreed that the 
Protestants should keep all the church property which they 
had possessed in the year 1624. 

Territorial Provisions. — The provisions of the treaty which 
related to territorial boundaries were perhaps even more im- 
portant. France gained the greater part of Alsace and three 
cities in Lorraine. The independence of Switzerland and also 
of Holland was formally acknowledged. Sweden acquired 
a long strip along the Baltic coast of northern Germany. The 
German states themselves underwent many important changes 
in territorial lines, and their relations to the imperial author- 
ity were materially changed. They could enter into alliances 
with one another and wdtli foreign powers, and the Diet had 
the right to decide upon all important measures. Thus Ger- 
many became a bundle of virtually independent states, and no 
real power was left to the emperor. 

Importance of the Treaty of Westphalia. — The Treaty of 
Westphalia was one of the chief international compacts in the 
history of Europe, and its effect has been felt in European 
affairs almost down to our own times. As a result of it, 
France gained some of the objects of her ambition. She was 



402 GENERAL HISTORY 

now started on a path of aggrandizement, which soon gained 
for her the foremost place in Europe. Her possession of Al- 
sace and Lorraine, a region occupied by people of Germar 
blood, continued down to 1871, when Germany regained these 
territories as a result of the Franco-German War. In northerr 
Europe, Sweden became the leading state. Sweden, by acquir- 
ing German territories, had the right of representation in the 
German Diet, and France also could interfere in German 
affairs as the guarantor of the treaty. 

On its religious side the Treaty of Westphalia, being oi 
the nature of a compromise, did not go far enough to satisfy 
either party. It did not definitely declare the principle oJ 
perfect toleration, yet it prepared the way for the triumph oJ 
that principle by recognizing Calvinism as a legitimate form 
of belief and by protecting the subject against the religious 
persecution of his prince. 

To sum up, France and Sweden came forward in European 
politics, while Germany and Spain fell far behind ; German ;y 
found her central government weakened and her internal af 
fairs in confusion ; Protestantism had gained recognition, and 
the period of warfare between nations for religion's sake came 
to an end. These were the main results of the Treaty oi 
Westphalia. 

Effects of the War. — As a result of the Avar, Germany was 
left in a condition of indescribable wretchedness. The people 
had been at the mercy of plundering armies for many years 
their lands were turned into deserts and their cities were re 
eluceel to ashes. It is saiel that the population of the whole 
country fell off more than one half during the war; that ir 
the city of Augsburg the population decreased from 80,000 tc 
18,000; and that the duchy of Wlirtemberg fell off in popu- 
lation from about 400,000 to 50,000. Learning was checked 
and vice and crime increased. In fact, the civilization of Ger- 
many was set back many years and it required the lapse ol 
a long period before she regained what she had lost. 



THE GROWTH OF NATIONS 403 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Thirty Years' War. — Causes: The Ecclesiastical Reservation. — 
The Evangelical Union : Trouble in Bohemia. — Teriods of the War. 

— The Bohemian Period: Reverses of the Bohemian King. The 
Leaders of the Protestants. — Tilly and Wallenstein : Wallenstein's 
System. The Catholic Generals. The Battles of Dessau and Lut- 
ter. Defeat of the Protestants. — Edict of Restitution. — Second 
Period of the War. — Giistavus Adolphus in Germany: The Siege 
and Sack of Magdeburg. Gustavus's Victory at Leipzig. — Battle of 
Liitzen : The Victory and Death of Gustavus Adolphus.— Third 
Stage of the War: The Murder of Wallenstein. The Interference 
of France. — Treaty of Westphalia. — Religious Provisions: Catho- 
lics, Lutherans, and Calvinists recognized. — Territorial Provisions : 
The Gains of France and Sweden. The Independence of Switzer- 
land and the Netherlands recognized. The Condition of Germany. 

— Importance of the Treaty of Westphalia. — Effects of the War .- 
Damage suffered by Germany. Her Loss of Population. 



CHAPTER LIV 

THE GROWTH OF NATIONS — THE ASCENDENCY OF FRANCE 

Louis XIII. — The death of Henry IV. left his son Louis 
XIII., a child of nine years, on the throne, and the govern- 
ment was carried on by the queen mother, Mary de' Medici. 
Louis XIII. 's reign lasted from 1610 to 1643. During the early 
part of his reign affairs were ill managed, for the queen had 
little ability as a ruler ; but after the year 1624 the policy of 
Trance was directed by one of the ablest statesmen of the cen- 
tury. Cardinal Richelieu. The king himself had neither the 
taste nor the ability for goverinnent, and left affairs in the 
hands of his minister. 

Richelieu. — The object of Richelieu's policy in domestic 
affairs was to make the French king absolute, and in foreign 
affairs to niuke France the most powerful state in Europe. 



404 GENERAL lilSTURY 

To attain the first of these objects, he resorted to every means 
to break the power of the aristocracy and to crush the Hugue- 
nots. In both these points he was successfuL The authority 
was gained for the king at the expense of the nobles, and the 
Huguenots as a political party were destroyed. They had 
formed a sort of state within a state, having totally different 
objects and ambitions from the people of the rest of France. 
They would have liked to form in France an independent Prot- 
estant commonwealth — a project wholly inconsistent with 
national unity and greatness. 

Siege of La Rochelle. — In 1627 an English fleet appeared 
off the coast of France to give aid to the Huguenots, an al- 
liance having been formed between the Protestant nobles and 
the English crown. The chief city of the Huguenots, and 
the one which they designed for the capital of their proposed 
republic, was La liochelle. Richelieu took vigorous measures 
against the Huguenots, and commanded in person at the siege 
of La Rochelle. After a long and courageous resistance, in 
the course of which the population fell to a small fraction of 
what it had been, the city yielded and its fortifications were 
destroyed. In a short time the Huguenots were deprived of 
all political power, although they were allowed to retain the 
measure of religious liberty which they had previously pos- 
sessed. 

How Richelieu carried out his foreign policy of making 
France the greatest state of Europe, we have seen in describing 
the closing period of the Thirty Years' War. Richelieu died 
before the war ended, but France reaped the ' benefit of his 
policy. 

The Age of Louis XIV. — During the reign of Louis XIV., 
the son and successor of Louis XIII. (1643-1715), which lasted 
over seventy years, France was the leading nation of Europe. 
In some respects it was a brilliant period. The magnificence 
of the French court, the splendor of Paris, and the proud 
position of France in Europe were characteristics of the time. 
Literature flourished under the patronage of the court, and 



THE GROWTH OF NATIONS 



405 



i^i& 




LuLi'5 Xl\ 



some of the greatest of the French writers lived in this reign. 
A striking characteristic of the time was the absolute belief 
of the subjects in the divine 
power of the king. Louis 
XIV. was the most conspicu- 
ous type of an absolute mon- 
arch. He was the source of all 
power and glory. 

Cardinal Mazarin. — The king 
was a child five years of age 
when he came to tlie throne, and 
during his minority the gov- 
ernment was carried on by Maz- 
arin. What liichelieu had 
undertaken, Mazarin carried 
out. The great advantages 

which France won by the Treaty of Westphalia were due to him. 
Richelieu did not live to see Spain and the German empire 
humiliated, but in Mazarin's time they were no longer the lead- 
ing powers. The eighteen years of his premiership were one 
of the most brilliant periods in French history, and much of 
what was gained after him must be set down to his credit; 
for some of Louis's greatest ministers were trained in politics 
by Mazarin. He died in 1661, leaving Louis a singularly able 
adviser in the minister Colbert. 

Colbert. — On the death of Mazarin, Louis, declaring that he 
would be his own prime minister, assumed the control of the 
government. He did, in fact, keep a sharp watch on every de- 
partment of affairs. Some regarded the king's declaration as 
a joke, thinking that he would soon tire of busying himself 
with affairs of state. 

Among those who did not appreciate the king's earnestness 
in this matter was the minister of finance, Fouquet, but he 
soon had cause to regret his blunder. Fouquet had managed 
the finances in such a way that at the end of his term of office 
he was enormously rich and the finances were in a worse con- 

COLBV'S CEN. HIST. 26 



406 GENERAL HISTORY 

dition than they had been before. His display aroused the 
jealousy of Louis, who, in the first place, disliked to see one of 
his subjects living in a state more luxurious than his own, and, 
in the second place, viewed with distrust wealth which was ac- 
quired from any other source than the king's liberality. In a 
financial report, Fouquet falsified some of his accounts, think- 
ing it would probably escape the king's notice, but the matter 
was brought by Colbert to Louis's attention and Fouquet was 
promptly degraded and condemned to imprisonment for life. 

Colbert was one of the ablest finance ministers in French 
history. From 1661 to 1683 he was at the head of the French 
finances, and during this period he managed to remove abuses 
and increase the revenue to an enormous extent. His policy, 
too, was one of encouragement to internal trade and agriculture. 

Wars of Louis XIV. — There were four principal wars dur- 
ing the reign of Louis XIV. They were, first, the War witli 
Spain, which arose over the question of the Spanish Neth- 
erlands (1667-1668) ; second, the War with Holland (1672- 
1678); third, the War of the Palatinate (1689-1697), and 
fourth, the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). In 
all of these wars France was the aggressor, and the object was 
conquest and the acquisition of new territory. 

The War with Spain (1667-1668). — This arose from the al- 
leged claims of Louis's queen, Mari'a Theres'a, to the sover- 
eignty over certain territories in Flanders and Brabant. She 
had renounced this claim on condition that a certain sum of 
money should be paid for her dowry. Spain had not paid the 
dowry, and this was taken by Louis as a justification for the 
renewal of his Avife's claim. 

Louis's argument was not the most reasonable or moral one, 
but it was backed by superior force. Spain was weak in many 
respects, and he was ready to take the field with a strong force 
under Turenne, the ablest general of the time. He invaded 
the low countries and took several important cities. The 
pompous vanity of the king is illustrated by what has been 
called "his tranquil siege of cities." Without incurring any 



THE GROWTH OF NATIONS 407 

danger, he would be present with his court at the siege and on 
capturing the town he would be straightway hailed as a hero 
surpassing the great generals of antiquity. 

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668). — Holland, taking alarm 
at the invasion of the Spanish Netherlands, brought about 
a triple alliance between Sweden, England, and herself, which 
demanded that peace should be restored. Louis very reluc- 
tantly gave way and consented to the Treaty of Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle, by Avhich he retained a small part of the low countries. 

The War with Holland (1672-1678). — This Avar was one of 
revenge ; for Louis could not forgive the Dutch for their inter- 
ference with his schemes in the Netherlands, and still less for 
the ridicule which some of their writers had heaped on him. 
Before entering on this war, he tried to isolate Holland and 
make sure that no ally among the European powers should come 
to her aid. For this purpose he bought up the Swedish king, 
and induced Charles II. of England by bribery, to form a secret 
treaty with him. This Treaty of Dover (1670) was a disgrace- 
ful compromise on the part of the English king ; for it granted 
the payment of a large sum of money for a juirpose which the 
people and Parliament of the realm held in the utmost detesta- 
tion. Moreover, by it the king of England agreed to become 
a Catholic. The military arrangements were made with equal 
care, under the skillful direction of Louvois and the famous 
engineer Vauban. 

Louis's success was prompt and complete. The States-Gen- 
eral of Holland offered him nearly a third of their territory and 
the payment of a large indemnity : but the French, foolishly 
rejecting these terms, demanded more concessions. They re- 
quired double the indemnity, a larger cession of territory, free- 
dom of worship for Catholics in the Dutch dominions, and the 
sending of a solemn deputation from Holland each year, to 
thank the French king for having restored peace to their 
country. 

This was too much even for a defeated and dispirited nation 
to bear, and it drove the Dutch to a last desperate measure. 



408 GENERAL HISTORY 

They cut the dikes and flooded the country. The French had 
to give up tlie siege of Amsterdam. Elsewhere, however, they 
avenged themselves by acts of cruelty. " The soldiers roasted 
all the Dutch in the village of Swammerdam," wrote one of 
the French generals; ''they did not let one escape." But 
finally the Germans sent aid to the Dutch, and England made 
peace with them. Spain, fearing Louis' ambition, also took 
sides with Holland; so Louis now had to face a powerful alli- 
ance of three countries, Spain, Germany, and Holland. 

William of Orange. — The leader of the Dutch was William, 
Prince of Orange, a descendant of William the Silent. All 
thought of compromise with France was now at an end, for 
William was a bitter and implacable hater of the French. He 
had all the energy and steadiness of purpose that had distin- 
guished his great ancestor, and like him he gained more by 
patience and ^persistency than by success in the field. In fact 
it is said of him that he lost more battles than any other gen- 
eral of history, within an equal period of time. But he would 
not yield. 

Treaty of Nimwegen. — The war closed with the Treaty of 
Nimwegen (1678), by which the Dutch gave up some unim- 
portant foreign possessions, and Spain the large tract kno'wn 
as Franche-Comte, together with many important cities in 
Flanders. Holland was saved. The treaty gave her very dif- 
ferent terms from what she would have had to concede if the 
greed of the French in her moment of defeat had not forced 
her to renew the war. Yet, on the whole, France came out 
well. Her boundaries in the north became what they are 
to-day, and her gains at the expense of Spain were permanent 
and valuable. This date, 1678, marks the highest point which 
Louis' power attained. 

The Interval of Peace. — In defiance of right and in the face 
of a powerful alliance against her, France had profited from 
the war, and the credit of it all was given to the king, who now 
received from his subjects the title of the Great. The Grand 
Monarch, as he was called, improved the interval of peace by 



THE GROWTH OF NATIONS 



409 



seizing the territories of his neighbors and destroying the reli- 
gious liberty of his Huguenot subjects. Success made him arro- 
gant and contemptuous of the' rights of others. He seized the 
important city of Strassburg, humbled Genoa for failing to 
render prompt obedience to his will, and sent an army to 
plunder the territories of the Duke of Savoy, because he would 
not expel heretics from his dominions. In short, he acted as the 
tyrant of Europe, and before long the other sovereigns formed 
a league against him. At home, in dealing with the Huguenots, 
he could act with impunity. They were weak, and the majority 
of the people Avere abject in their loyalty. 

Measures against the Huguenots. — After the war with Hol- 
land the activity of the government against the Protestants 
increased. Louis had always been 
anxious to uproot heresy, and the 
older he grew the more bigoted he 
became. All sorts of devices were 
employed to convert the Hugue- 
nots to the Catholic faith. The 
nobility were tempted to renounce 
Protestantism as the price of the 
king's favor, and many of them 
turned Catholics. A large sum of 
money was set apart for religious 
bribery; and while inducements 
Avere offered for conversion, penal- 
ties were multiplied for the obsti- 
nate. Every kind of restriction and 
annoyance was imposed on the 
Huguenots, and when these failed stronger measures were 
employed. 

The Dragonnades. — One of the harshest features of this co- 
ercive policy was the practice of billeting troops in Protestant 
families. This kind of persecution was known as the Dragon- 
nades. In the families of unconverted Huguenots bands of 
brutal soldiers were quartered, and the violence and excesses 




Costume of the Time of Loiis Xi V. 



410 GENERAL HISTORY 

of these unwelcome boarders were encouraged by the local 
authorities as likely to drive the unbelievers into the orthodox 
faith. This, in fact, was their effect. Conversions were quick, 
if not lasting. 

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. — Finally came the Eevo- 
cation of the Edict of Xantes (1685), the decree which, it will 
be remembered, was issued by Henry IV. in 1598, and guaran- 
teed to the Protestants a fair degree of toleration. Its repeal 
left them no religious liberty whatever. As a matter of fact, 
great numbers of the Protestants had left the country already. 
Others followed, till the number of Huguenot refugees reached 
nearly 250,000. They went to Germany, Holland, Switzerland, 
England, and the American colonies. As they were among the 
best and most industrious citizens of France, she suffered by 
their loss, and the lands to which they went profited to an 
equal degree. 

By revoking the Edict of Nantes Louis made all the Protes- 
tant states of Europe his enemies, and by seizing the lands 
of his neighbors he angered the Catholic powers. As a result, 
the League of Augsburg was formed in 1686, comprising Ger- 
many, Spain, Holland, and Sweden, and later Savoy and England 
also. In 1688 James 11. , a Catholic and an ally of Louis, w^as 
driven from the English throne, and the Protestant William 
of Orange was accepted by the English as their king. This 
was a severe blow to Louis ; for he was now liable to attack 
from the sea, and was obliged to maintain armies and fleets to 
defend his rear, while directing campaigns on the continent. 

War of the Palatinate (1689-1697). — The causes of the war 
were (1) a disputed claim to the Palatinate, (2) the refusal of 
the pope to regard Louis' wishes in appointing a new elector of 
Cologne. The lands of the elector adjoined Alsace, which was 
endangered by the presence of a hostile neighbor. Hostili- 
ties began in 1689. Louis at once threw an army into the 
Palatinate, and the campaign that followed became a mere raid 
of murder and pillage. Dwellings were fired, the country was 
turned into a desert, and 100,000 of the inhabitants are said to 



THE GROWTH OF NATIONS 411 

have been driven from their homes. The blame for this brn- 
tality attaches mainly to Lonis' able war minister, Louvois, 
the organizer of the Dragonnades. France lost more than she 
gained by it, for all Europe was indignant at the outrage. In 
the war the French forces fought brilliantly on land and sea, 
winning many victories, especially through the skill of their 
great leader, Luxembourg. 

Treaty of Ryswick. — Nevertheless, the alliance of the for- 
eign powers was too strong for them, and the Treaty of Kys- 
wick, which concluded the war in 1697, left France but little 
better off than she had been just after the Peace of Nimwegen. 
With the important exception of Strassburg, she gave up almost 
all the lands which she had seized during the years that fol- 
lowed the war with Holland. Louis recognized William III. 
as the rightful king of England. The Duke of Savoy, whose 
family for years had been bullied b}^ the French court, gained 
a position of independence and became one of the important 
sovereigns of Europe. From his family descended the kings 
of Sardinia, who in the nineteenth century united all Italy 
under their rule. 

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). — One reason 
which led Louis to consent to the Peace of Ryswick was his 
interest in the question of the Spanish succession. Charles II. 
of Spain was childless, and Europe was anxiously debating the 
question of his successor. There were three claimants in the 
held : first, Philip of Anjou, the second grandson of Louis XIV. ; 
second, the young prince elector of Bavaria; and third, the 
archduke Charles, son of the emperor Leopold of Germany. 

There was much intriguing and wrangling among the courts 
on this subject of succession, and several proposals for a fair 
division of the spoils were discussed. Charles IL, finally, 
resenting the proposed schemes of the great powers for dividing 
up his inheritance after his death, bequeathed the throne to 
the weakest of the three claimants, the young prince of Ba- 
varia. This claimant died, however, and France and Austria 
were the only surviving rivals. Europe was divided on the 



412 , GENERAL HISTORY 

question ; for it was feared that if either of these great powers 
gained its end it woiikl create a state so strong that the 
inhabitants of the others would be threatened. Charles II., 
a weak-minded and miserable king, finally fell wholly under 
the influence of France, and in his will named Philip of Anjou 
as his heir, to the disgust and wrath of Europe. Louis accepted 
this offer for his grandson. For some time it was doubtful 
what the course of England would be ; but Louis declared the 
young son of the exiled James 11. to be the rightful king of 
England, in open violation of the Treaty of Ryswick. Eng- 
land was now ready and enthusiastic for war. 

Alliance against France. — A grand alliance against France 
was formed between England, Prussia, Holland, Portugal, the 
German Empire, and Savoy. Besides the greater strength 
which their combined wealth and numbers gave, the allies had 
on their side the military genius of the two great leaders, the 
Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy. On the 
other hand, most of the distinguished French generals had 
died, and Louis filled their places with men of inferior 
ability. 

Early Battles of the War. — In the first part of the war, the 
allies were on the whole successful. Marlborough and Prince 
Eugene defeated the French and Bavarians at Blenheim (1704) 
on the left bank of the Danube, capturing their genei-al and 
some 15,000 of their troops. England captured the fortress 
of Gibraltar in Spain. Marlborough overwhelmed the French 
again at Ramillies in the Netherlands, and Eugene won equal 
fame soon afterwards by a victory at Turin. At (3udenarde 
in the Netherlands the combined forces of Marlborough and 
Eugene won another victory. 

Louis was now (1708) almost without hope. He showed 
himself ready to make a treaty on terms most favorable to the 
allies, including even the withdrawal from Spain and the giv- 
ing up of Strassburg. The allies made the same mistake that 
Louis had often made in his times of prosperity. They asked 
too much, and drove the French to renew the war. Another 



thp: growth of nations 



418 



victory was won by Marlborough and Eugene at Malplaquet, 
but the situation was now more favorable to France. The arch- 
duke Charles, the Austrian claimant, became, by the death of 
his father and brother, emperor of Germany, and his accession 
to the Spanish throne was now as objectionable as had been the 
accession of the French claimant; for it would unite the two 
great powers, Spain and the German Empire, in the hands of 




one ruler. There were, moreover, dissensions among the allies, 
and their cause was weakened by the distrust aroused by the 
suspicious conduct of their gi-eatest general, Marlborough, who 
had entered into negotiations with the enemy. 

Treaty of Utrecht. — In 1713 England concluded with France 
the Treaty of Utrecht. Four other states soon entered into 
this treaty, and it was followed (1714) by a peace at Rastadt 
with the German emperor. The terms of the Treaty of 
Utrecht were by no means so hard for France as would have 



414 GENERAL HISTORY 

been a treaty formed in her hour of distress. The peace left 
the Bourbon king, Philip of Anjou, on the throne of Spain, 
but the French court solemnly promised that the two king- 
doms should never be united. England gained Gibraltar and 
the island of Minorca from Spain, and Newfoundland, Nova 
Scotia, and Hudson Bay Territory from France. Moreover, 
Louis promised that he would not harbor the Pretender to the 
English throne (the son of James II.) any longer in his domin- 
ions. To Savoy was given the island of Sicily, but this was 
exchanged a few years later for the island of Sardinia. The 
Spanish Netherlands, and Naples, Sardinia and Milan were taken 
from Spain and became vassal states of Austria. The great gain- 
ers by the war were England, who in the Treaty of Utrecht gained 
Gibraltar and some additions to her colonial empire, and Austria, 
who acquired rich possessions in Italy and the Netherlands. 

Close of Louis' Reign. — The last years of Louis' reign 
were very different from the first. In the most important of 
his projects he had failed, and even where he succeeded the 
results did not pay for what it had cost to bring them about. 
The constant drain on the treasury caused by the continual 
wars and the absurd extravagance of the French court had 
almost bankrupted the state. France was in a wretched con- 
dition and was beginning to decline from her position as the 
leading state in Europe. What Louis had gained, he had 
gained by the devotion of his subjects more than by his own 
abilities, and the price which France paid for it in the lives 
and money of her people was too great to be estimated. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Growth of Nations. — Louis XIII. — RicheHeu : The Aims of His 
Domestic Policy. His Schemes for National Aggrandizement. His 
Success. Siege of La Rochelle. — Tlie Age of Louis XIV. — Cardinal 
Mazarin : The Success of His Policy. — Colbert: His Financial Pe- 
forms. — Wars of Louis XIV. : The War of the Spanish Netherlands. 
Louis' Success. — The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. — The War with 
Holland : The Treaty of Dover. French Successes. The Alliance 
against France. — William of Orange. — Treaty of Nimwegen. — The 



ENGLAND IN THE SKVENTEENTH CENTURY 



415 



Interval of Peace: Louis' Aggressions. — Measures Against the 
Huguenots. — The Dragonnades. — Revocation of Edict of Nantes: 
Its Effect. — War of the Palatinate : Its Causes. The Cruelty of 
the Erench. — The Treaty of Ryswick. — The War of the Spanish 
Succession : The Claimants to the Spanish Throne. Louis' Conduct. 
— Alliance against Erance. — Early Battles of the War : Blenheim. 
Ramillies. Turin. Oudenarde. Louis' Critical Position. Excessive 
Demands of the Allies. The Renewal of the War. The Battle of 
Malplaquet. Dissensions among the Allies. — Treaty of Utrecht : 
England's and Austria's Gains. The Terms Imposed on France. — 
Close of Louis' Reign : The P'ailure of Most of His Projects. The 
Condition of France. 



CHAPTER LV 



ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY - 
BREAK OF THE CIVIL WAR 



TO THE OUT- 



Introduction. — The seventeenth century was a period of 
great importance in English history. Before its close, a 
long struggle between the king and 
Parliament was brought to an end, 
and a wholly new principle of gov- 
ernment was recognized. The tyr- 
anny of the Stuart kings provoked 
a civil war, and led to the over- 
throw and execution of Charles L, 
the second of the dynasty. Then 
followed a government unlike any- 
thing that England had ever before 
experienced. This was the so-called 
Commonwealth, which soon fell 
wholly under the control of the 
Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell. 
In 1660 the Stuarts were restored 
to the throne, but they had learned 
nothing from experience. In 1088 the foll}^ and bigotry of the 




Coronation Chair 
(Westminster Abbey) 



416 GENERAL HISTORY 

Stuart kingj James II., caused a revolution. He was driven 
from the throne and at the will of his people a foreigner was 
called in to take his ]3lace. The Revolution of 1688 changed 
entirely the system of government, destroying forever the 
chances of an absolute monarchy in England. 

James I. (1603-1625). — The iirst Stuart to come to the 
throne of England was James I. He was the son of Mary 
Queen of Scots, and had inherited the throne of Scotland 
under the title of James VI. By his accession to the English 
throne on the death of Queen Elizabeth, in 1603, the two king- 
doms Avere united in the person of their sovereign. In Scot- 
land James had been under Presbyterian influence and the 
dissenting element in England hoped that he would favor them, 
but his early contact with Presbyterianism had just the opposite 
effect. He was a strong believer in the Episcopal form of 
government, and his motto was "No Bishop, No King"; for he 
believed that the priesthood of the Anglican Church was the 
strongest defense of the throne. Accordingly he showed him- 
self indifferent to the Presbyterians from the first. Soon after 
his arrival in London a number of the Presbyterian clergy 
presented a petition for a reform, in the Church service. James 
summoned a conference, which decided against them ; and ten 
of the petitioners were thrown into prison. 

Besides being intolerant in religious matters, he held to a 
view in political affairs which was certain to bring him into 
conflict with Parliament. He believed hrmly in the divine 
right of the monarch, and that all the privileges and liberties 
of Parliament existed solely by permission of the crown. Had 
he been a man of marked ability or imposing address, these 
high notions would not have seemed so absurd; but he was 
childish, pedantic, and cowardly, with nothing kingly about 
him, and his claims contrasted strongly with the contempt 
which his character inspired. He showed at first a tendency 
to deal gently with the Catholics, but this caused such discon- 
tent among his Protestant subjects that his policy changed to 
one of severity. This led to the formation of the Gunpowder 



ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 417 

Plot to blow up the king and the houses of Parliament (1605). 
But the design was discovered in time, and the conspirators, 
including Guy Fawkes, who was to have touched a match to the 
powder which had been placed under the building, were put to 
death. Still harsher measures were enforced against the Catho- 
lics after this. 

James and the Parliament. — The king's attempt to rule as an 
absolute monarch soon brought him into conflict with Parlia- 
ment. Not content with the usual revenues which were voted 
him by the Parliament, he imposed certain taxes on his own 
account, and when Parliament began to debate his right to do 
this he ordered them to drop the subject. This they refused 
to do, and the king promptly dissolved the Parliament. The 
next Parliament met with the same fate, and four of its leaders 
were thrown into prison. The third Parliament in his reign 
ventured to protest against his invasion of their rights, but the 
king dissolved it, and tore the protest from the statute book with 
his own hand. Thus tlie first of the Stuarts showed the same 
disregard of law which later characterized other members of 
his family. 

Other Events of the Reign. — An important event of James' 
reign was the planting of Scotch and English colonies in the 
Irish county of Ulster on lands taken from the native chiefs. 
Many of the Irish were driven from their homes. The Ulster 
colonies were prosperous, but the natives could not forgive the 
wrong, and another grievance was added to the long list of 
injuries which embittered the Irish against their Anglo-Saxon 
rulers. 

In his foreign policy James was wholly unsuccessful. He 
gave no effectual aid to his son-in-law, Frederick V., who was 
driven from his Bohemian kingdom, and he planned an alliance 
with Spain which brought nothing but disaster. Sir Walter 
Raleigh, who 'had been kept many years in prison on a charge 
of treason, was set free that he might go on a voyage in search 
of gold in America. He found no gold, and on his return 
planned to sfeize some Spanish ships. He did not carry out 



418 



GENERAL HISTORY 




Charles I. 



this project, but the authorities were told of it upon his return, 
and Ealeigh was executed as a traitor. 

Charles I. (1625-1649). — Charles I. was a far abler ruler 
than his father. He was a man of greater courage and more 

dignity of character, but he had 
been trained from infancy in 
the belief of his divine right 
to rule, and he chose ministers 
who encouraged him in this 
view and tried to apply it prac- 
tically. Parliament was not 
disposed to be amiable after the 
wrongs it had suffered at the 
hands of James. In the first 
fifteen months of his reign two 
Parliaments were summoned 
and angrily dissolved ; the first 
because it demanded that its 
grievances should be redressed before it granted the king the 
requisite supplies ; the second because it impeached the king's 
miuister, Buckingham. In the interval between the second 
and third Parliaments the king raised money by forced loans 
and benevolences, throwing into prison those who refused to 
comply with the illegal demands. Under the influence of 
Buckingham the king tried to divert the attention of his sub- 
jects from bad government at home by entering into a war 
with France; but the result was humiliating, and the king's 
minister was more hated than ever. 

The Petition of Right. — Need of money obliged Charles to 
call his third Parliament, which, before it would grant him 
supplies, passed the famous Petition of Right, setting forth 
their grievances. The abuses complained of were illegal ex- 
actions of money, arbitrary imprisonment, punishment by 
martial law, and the quartering of troops in private houses. 
The petition was drawn up in December, 1628, and the king 
was obliged to consent to it. It was based on the principles 



ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 419 

of the Great Charter, and, like that iiistruinent, became one of 
the most important elements in the Elngiish constitution. 

Unfortunately, Charles did not keep his word. He continued 
to obtain money by illegal means, and to throw into prison 
those who refused to grant it. When Parliament objected, 
the king dismissed it. Soon afterwards Buckingham was as- 
sassinated, but although this removed one cause of discontent, 
the Parliament in its next session (1629) was soon at odds with 
the king again, and came to a speedy end. 

Charles rules without a Parliament. — For eleven years, that 
is, from 1629 to 1640, the king called no Parliament, and ruled 
as absolute monarch. He threw into prison those members of 
the House of Commons who had opposed him, and enforced 
his Avill througlT the Court of Star Chamber, which became a 
very serviceable tool of despotism in his hands. His old illegal 
methods of getting money were revived, and later a new one 
was put into practice. This was the collection of 'ship money,' 
which was originally a contribution from the counties on the 
seacoast to provide ships for the use of the king. The king, how- 
ever, had no intention of building a fleet at this time. What 
he wanted was to raise money on that pretense, and the im- 
position was levied even on the inland counties. The king 
was forbidden by law to tax his subjects without the consent 
of Parliament, but he and his ministers claimed that the levy- 
ing of ship money was not the imposition of a new tax, but 
merely the enforcement of an existing law. In the inland 
counties there was some resistance. The patriot John Hamp- 
den ventured to refuse to pay the sum of twenty shillings 
assessed upon a portion of his estate. This became a test 
case, and all over England people anxiously awaited the 
verdict. Hampden lost the case, but the result was to make 
liim the idol of the Parliamentary party, and to add to the 
unpopularity of the tax. 

The King's Policy toward Scotland. — In Elizabeth's reign the 
Presbyterian form of worship had been established in Scotland. 
James, knowing something of the temper of his Scotch sub- 



420 GENERAL HISTORY 

jects, had not dared to force the Scottish Church into conformity 
with tlie English, although he caused the royal supremacy to 
be acknowledged in Church matters throughout Scotland, and 
the free exercise of the Anglican worship to be permitted. 
Further than this he did not venture, but Charles was not 
equally cautious. The archbishop of Canterbury was now the 
energetic but narrow-minded Laud, whose one idea in regard 
to Scotland was to uproot all dissent from the Anglican Church, 
and to make the bishops supreme. With his aid, and at 
Charles' command, a new prayer book was prepared for the 
Scotch, to their indignation. So, while England was in an 
uproar over the king's tyranny in political matters, Scotland 
was on the verge of revolt on account of religious oppression. 

The National Covenant. — At last, in 1638, the Scotch people 
signed the National Coveiunit, promising to adhere to their old 
religion, and resist all attempts at change. The king was in 
a dangerous position, for in spite of his illegal exactions he was 
short of money. He tried to compromise with the Scots, but 
his offers came too late. His minister, Strafford, led an army 
north, but his troops were ill disciplined and he dared not 
risk a battle. A treaty favorable to the Scots was made in 
1639. 

The Short Parliament. — The king now finding that he could 
take no step toward vengeance without a grant of supplies, 
called his fourth Parliament (1610). This is known as the 
Short Parliament; for, refusing to come to an agreement with 
the king, it was dissolved after three weeks. For a little 
while Charles tried to gain his ends Avithout summoning 
another Parliament, but again failed. His plans against the 
Scots ended in failure, and as a last resort he summoned 
Parliament. This was the famous Long Parliament, which 
for a period of nearly twenty years acted as the national 
council. 

The Long Parliament. — The discontent of the people at the 
conduct of the king showed itself in the character of the 
men whom they chose to represent them in this body. The 



ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENril CENTURY 421 

majority of the members were radicals, who soon passed 
beyond the point of legal reform and started on a course of 
revolution. The king had broken the law by invading the 
rights of Parliament; Parliament now broke the law by 
invading the rights of the king. Yet at first it contented 
itself with merely restoring the constitution to its proper 
place. Some of its good measures were the sweeping away 
of the arbitrary courts and the prohibition of ship money. 
It also provided that Parliament should be summoned every 
third year. 

Fall of Strafford. — But in the proceedings against Strafford, 
the king's minister, its course was illegal. Strafford had been 
one of the harshest upholders of the principle of divine right. 
So far as it lay in his power, he had crushed out, even by un- 
scrupulous means, the least show of opposition to the king's 
arbitrary government. But the charge against him was treason, 
and his offense did not technically fall under that head. Par- 
liament, however, condemned him to death under a Bill of 
Attainder, and Charles, although he had sworn never to desert 
Strafford, signed the death warrant. 

The Grand Remonstrance. — The hostility of Parliament 
increased from day to day. In the first place, its members 
had no faith in the king's promises, for they had learned that 
he made them only to deceive. In the second place, the 
Puritan party, which was bent on the destruction of the 
Episcopal form of Church government, was constantly growing 
in strength. At last the majority passed a resolution known 
as the Grand Remonstrance, appealing to the people for 
protection and complaining of the policy of the king's friends. 
The king had tried to prevent the passage of this measure and, 
failing in this, determined to seize the leaders in the House. 
On January 4, 1642, he entered the House of Commons at 
the head of a band of soldiers and demanded the surrender 
of five of its members, including John Hampden and John 
Pym, who were among the foremost of the popular leaders. 
The members were not present and the king retired in anger. 
Colby's gen. iiisr. — 27 



422 GENERAL HltSTOKY 

As he left cries of "Privilege!'' followed liim. This really 
marks the beginning of the civil war ; for although lighting 
did not actually take place for several months, all hope of a 
peaceful settlement was from this time at an end. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

England in tiik Seventeenth Century. — Introduction : General Char- 
acter of the I'eriod. — James I. : The Union of England and Scotland. 
James' Religious Policy. His Intolerance. The Gunpowder Plot. 
— James and the Tarliament: His Arbitrary Conduct. Frequent 
Dissolutions of Parliament. — Other Events of the Reign : The Colo- 
nization of Ulster. Foreign Policy. The Execution of Sir Walter 
Raleigh. — Charles I. : His Attitude toward Parliament. Bucking- 
ham. — The Petition of Right : Mismanagement of Charles. — Charh s 
rules without a Parliament : His Methods of Raising Money. Ship 
Money. John Hampden. — The King's Policy toward Scotland: 
Archbishop Laud's Attempt to force Episcopacy on the Scots. — The 
National Covenant. — The Short Parliament. — The Long Parlia- 
ment. — Fall of Strafford. — The Grand Remonstrance: The King'.s 
Attempt to arrest the Five Members. 



CHAPTEPx LVI 

THE CIVIL WAR AND THE PROTECTORATE 

The Opposing Parties. — The essential points on which the 
opposing parties differed were the extent of the royal authority 
and the rights of Parliament. Among the Royalists, or Cava- 
liers, as they were called, there was an unquestioning faith in 
the absolute kingship. Among the Parliamentarians or Round- 
heads (so called because some had close-cropped hair), there 
was an equally firm belief in the rights of Parliament. Now 
the first party stood for the doctrine of the divine right of 
kings and the passive obedience of subjects. This meant that 
the king's power could not be restricted by any human author- 
ity ; that he was therefore above all law, and that the duty of 



THE CIVIL WAR AND THE PROTECTORATE 423 

the subject in all conceivable circumstances was to obey him. 
He might take the property of a subject and imprison him at 
will, and the king's servants were answerable to no one but 
himself. Parliament was merely to assist, not to direct him. 

On the other hand, the Parliamentary party looked upon 
the king as having certain defined powers, but limited by the 
rights of his subjects. They held that law was made by the 
joint action of Parliament and king, and that the latter had no 
right to override the law. Parliament alone had the right to 
grant taxes. It might punish the king's servants. The king 
had not the right of punishing his subjects, except by due 
process of law. 

These views represent in general the views of each party. 
But there were many on the side of the king who did not fully 
approve of his conduct. They had joined him from chivalrous 
motives, feeling that he was the weaker party and that Parlia- 
ment had overstepped its authority. On the other hand, among 
the Parliamentarians there were men of all grades of political 
views, from those who favored the setting up of a Kepublic 
and the destruction of the English Church, to those who 
merely wished a limited monarchy. The Parliamentarians 
were also divided in their religious views. The most numerous 
element among them was the Presbyterian, but the Independ- 
ents, who wished for complete self-government for each con- 
gregation, were growing rapidly in power. 

The Beginning of the War. — On August 22, 1642, the royal 
standard was set up at Nottingham, and all loyal subjects were 
summoned to the king's support. There had been some at- 
tempts at compromise, but the demands of Parliament were 
excessive. It required the control of the militia and of the 
Church, and many other rights, which it had not previously 
possessed. In the earlier battles, the king's party gained sev- 
eral successes, especially where its cavalry came into play. 
This cavalry was led by the brilliant but imprudent captain 
Prince Eupert, grandson of James I. At the end of 1643, 
however, the Scots made common cause with the Houndheads. 



424 GENERAL HISTOKY 

Oliver Cromwell; Marston Moor. — The most remarkable man 
in either of the two armies was Oliver Cromwell, who took 
part in the early campaigns as a colonel of cavalry, having 
raised a regiment of Puritan troops, which came to be known 
as 'Cromwell's Ironsides.' The regiment Avas composed of 
serious and determined men, who were mighty in prayer as 
well as in battle. None of the vices of the camp were found 
among them, and they went in to fight singing psalms. They 
were regarded as invincible and their record during the war 
seemed to bear out this opinion. In the great battle of Marston 
Moor, 1644, the Eoyalists were beaten by the Parliamentarians 
and the Scots, through the help of this regiment. 

Naseby. — The success of Cromwell's discipline and organi- 
zation now determined the Parliamentarians to model the army 
anew. This work fell to the lot of the Independents, and Crom- 
well became the real head of the army. The decisive battle 
of the war was fought at Naseby in June, 1615, where the 
Royalists were routed. 

Pride's Purge. — The king in 1646 surrendered himself to 
the Scots, who later gave him up to the English. Now that he 
was in the hands of the enemy, there was nothing for him to do 
but submit. If he could have done this gracefully, it might 
have averted further war and saved his life. But the same old 
habit of deceit followed him now as it had in the past, and he 
tried by crooked means to phiy off one party against the other. 
There was a long period marked by intrigues and double 
dealing, and finally there seemed a chance of an agreement 
between the king and the victorious party, but here again the 
king's duplicity injured his cause. It was understood that he 
should be restored on terms favorable to the Independents. 
But he entered into a secret treaty with the Scotch Presbyte- 
rians, who hated the Independents, and the war broke out again. 
Cromwell, however, soon succeeded in suppressing the revolt. 
After this the more moderate leaders could not hold the radicals 
in check and control passed into the hands of the army, who 
demanded the death of the king. To prevent any opposition 



THE CIVIL WAR AND THE PROTECTORATE 



425 



from Parliament, an officer named Pride entered the House of 
Commons and arrested all the members who were opposed to 
the designs of the army. 

Trial and Execution of the King. — Injustice and wrong stained 
the triumph of the king's foes just as they had disgraced his 
own rule in the time of his prosperity. His trial and condem- 
nation were absolutely without show of legality. After Pride's 
Purge the House became a willing servant of the army. It 
went on and instituted a high court of justice, before which 
the king was summoned. Charles behaved with dignity at the 
trial, refusing to recognize the right of such a tribunal to pro- 
nounce judgment. But the sentence was death and it was 
carried oat in a few days, the king showing courage and 
composure to the end (1649). 

The Commonwealth. — A few days after the death of the king 
the House of Lords was abolished and a new form of gov- 
ernment was established, which is known in history as the 
Commonwealth. What was left of the House of Commons 
continued in session and a council of state composed of forty- 
one members carried on the 
government. But the only man 
in England fit to rule at this 
time was Cromwell, and at the 



end of the 



year 



1653 he was 



made Lord Protector of the Realm. 
Before this he had put down the 
Royalists and Catholics in Ireland 
with savage cruelty, and had twice 
defeated the Scotch forces of the 
young heir to the throne (after- 
wards Charles II.) in the battles 
of Dunbar and Worcester. For 
five years (till his death in 1658) 

Cromwell ruled with all the despotism that had marked the 
previous reigns. Yet it was a despotism of a different char- 
acter, for the ruler was a wise and able man. 




Ckomvvkll 



426 GENERAL HISTORY 

The Protectorate. — Cromwell's rule was severe, but so long 
as people obeyed him lie was tolerant of diiferences in faith. 
Any form of opposition was crushed by him with vigor and 
he secured at last the complete submission of English, Scotch, 
and Irish. 

His foreign policy was brilliantly successful. Among the 
nations of Europe England gained a proud position. Holland 
had already been forced by him to accept terms favorable to 
the English ; for in spite of the early victories of the great 
Dutch commanders, Van Tromp, De Ruyter, and De Witt, the 
English fleet, under Admiral Blake, was in the end successful. 
From Spain he took Jamaica. He interfered on behalf of the 
Protestants in Piedmont and forced the Duke of Savoy to 
cease persecuting them. All over Europe England's name 
was respected, and she regained the place she had held in the 
time of Elizabeth. 

In spite of these successes, his rule was a failure ; for he left 
nothing permanent, and did not succeed in founding a dynasty. 
Englishmen could not forget that his strength depended on 
the army, and his foreign victories did not lessen the tradi- 
tional dislike of military control. ^loreover, the Puritan faith 
was not acceptable to the majority of the people. Neverthe- 
less, Cromwell was one of the great men of history. An his- 
torical scholar of to-day has called him "the most typical 
Englishman of his time." 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Civil War and the Protectorate. — The Opposing Parties : The 
Royalists. The Parliamentarians. Their Respective Views. — The 
Beginning of the War. — Oliver Cromwell ; Marston Moor. — 
Naseby. — Pride's Purge : The Deceitf illness of the King. The Tri- 
umph of his Enemies. — Trial and Execution of the King. — The 
Commonwealth : The Subjugation of Ireland. The Battles of Dun- 
bar and Worcester. Cromwell is made Lord Protector. — The Pro- 
tectorate : Success of Cromwell's Foreign Policy. 



CHAPTER LVII 

THE RESTORATION 

Richard Cromwell. — Cromwell's son, Richard, succeeded as 
Protector, but lie was a weak man, neither qualified nor dis- 
posed to overcome difficulties. It was soon clear that the 
great mass of the English people wished for the restoration of 
the Stuart family in the person of Cliarles Stuart, the son of 
Charles I. General Monk, who was in command of the troops 
in Scotland, marched to London and brought about the meet- 
ing of a Parliament which declared in favor of Charles. 
The prince came to England amid general rejoicing. His 
march to London was like a triumphal procession, for many 
who had supported the Parliament at first were weary of 
Puritan rule. There was hardly any sign of opposition to his 
restoration, and in 1660 he ascended the throne. 

Charles II. (1660-1685). — His reign has been described as a 
period of good laws and bad government; but the good laws 
came only at intervals, and the bad government was continu- 
ous. It was the reign of the man of whom one of his minis- 
ters said that " he never said a foolish thing and never did a 
wise one." Charles replied, according to the story, that his acts 
were the acts of his ministers, but his words were his own. 

The ' Merry Monarch,' as he was called, was good-natured 
and affable, witty and shrewd, but wholly without principle 
or wisdom. On his return the Episcopal system was restored 
and uniformity of worship was enforced. Yet the measures 
of the. early part of the reign were generally mild. Those who 
had taken part in the rebellion were pardoned, with the excep- 
tion of certain of the judges and otliers who had taken an 
active part in the condemnation of Charles I. Thirteen of 
these were put to death, and others were imprisoned for life. 

Severity towards Dissenters. — The Church was restored and 
no other was' to be tolerated. This was most unjust, for the 

427 



428 GENERAL HISTORY 

Presbyterians had done much to bring about the restoration 
of the king and certainly deserved something in return. The 
king favored toleration, but Parliament refused it. It passed 
laws to enforce uniformity of worship, with the result that 
about 2000 clergymen were driven from the Established Church. 
The so-called Conventicle Act made it a criminal offense for 
XDCople to worship according to any other services than that of 
the Established Church. The Five-Mile Act forbade every 
dissenting minister to come within five miles of any locality 
which sent members to Parliament. Other harsh measures 
were taken against both Protestants and Catholics, and thou- 
sands were thrown into prison. But Charles is not to be 
blamed for this policy, for he was secretly inclined to the 
Roman Catholic faith, and it is probable that he would rather 
have foregone the pleasure of persecuting the Protestants than 
have imposed similar punishments upon the Eoman Catholics. ' 

Foreign Policy of Charles. — The early years of Charles' reign 
were a period of disaster and disgrace. In i6(JD occurred the 
great plague in London, destroying the lives of nearly 100,000 
people. In the next year took place the great fire which 
reduced the city of London to ashes. In 1667 the Dutch, who 
were at war with the English, were so contemptuous of the 
English power that they tried to sail up the Thames and 
threaten London. The people disliked the Dutch war and wel- 
comed the triple alliance in which England, Holland, and Swe- 
den joined against Louis XIV. But Charles was faithless to 
his subjects and by the secret treaty of Dover in 1670 became 
the ally of Louis. By this disgraceful treaty he agreed to aid 
Louis in his attack on Holland, in return for which Charles 
was to receive a large sum of money and the aid of French 
troops in case there was any resistance to the restoration of 
the Roman Catholic faith in England. 

The 'Popish Plot' (1678). — The English people were loyal 
to the king, but equally loyal to their Church. They began to 
suspect that Charles was plotting against the established faith, 
and when Parliament came together it adopted harsh measures 



THK KESTORATION 429 

against the Catholics. The Test Act, passed in 1673, shut out 
all Nonconformists from office. This was aimed especially 
against the Roman Catholics, and the hatred of them was 
increased by the rumor of the 'Popish Plot.' It was reported 
that the Roman Catholics had planned to assassinate the king 
and place his brother, the Duke of York (an avowed member 
of that Church), on the throne. It was further said that a gen- 
eral massacre of Protestants was planned. One of the chief 
authors of these false accusations was a man named Titus 
Gates, a scoundrel who aimed merely at enriching himself at 
the expense of the government. As a result of fraud and 
popular delusion, Roman Catholics were put to death, and the 
Parliament tried to pass an act excluding the Duke of York 
from the throne. To prevent this, the king dissolved the 
Parliament. 

Whigs and Tories. — Petitions now poured in from all parts 
of the country begging for the summoning of a new Parlia- 
ment. On the other hand, those who stood by the king 
declared their abhorrence of this attempt to force the king's 
hand. From these circumstances the two parties were termed 
respectively Petitioners and Abhorrers, names which soon after- 
wards were changed to Whigs and Tories. These party names 
lasted in England for many years. Their origin is doubtful, 
but it is said that the term ' Whigs ' had formerly been applied 
to the Presbyterians of Scotland, who opposed the government, 
and that 'Tories' was originally the name of the Roman Catho- 
lic dissenters who had sought refuge in the Irish bogs. Neither 
party wished the overthrow of the monarchy. The difference 
between them was that the Tories thought that the best thing 
for the country was to strengthen the crown, while the Whigs 
had their eyes on the welfare of the people. Tories seemed to 
have a natural prejudice against any change. The Whigs 
favored change where they thought it meant improvement. 

The Habeas Corpus Act — In 1679 Parliament passed the 
Habeas Corpus Act, which provided against illegal imprison- 
ment. Any person arrested gained by this act the right to be 



430 GENERAL HISTORY 

brought to trial, or to have it proved that he was legally con- 
fined. This was to prevent the exercise of despotic power 
against the individual citizen. 

The Closing Years of the Reign. — The Whigs had gone too far 
in their attacks on the Catholics, and finally the tide of public 
opinion turned against them. The charge of plotting against 
the king was fastened on them, and two eminent Whigs, Lord 
Russell and Algernon Sidney, were put to death, though prob- 
ably innocent of any complicity in the plot. The last year of 
the king's reign marked the triumph of his party and a return 
almost to an absolute monarchy. He died in 1685, professing 
the Homan Catholic faith on his deathbed. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Restoration. — Richard Cromwell: Parliament declares in Favor 
of Charles II. — Charles II.: His Character and Government. — 
Severity toward Dissenters : The Conventicle Act. Five-Mile Act. 
Persecutions of Protestants and Roman Catholics. — Foreign Policy 
of Charles : Disgraceful Treaty with France. — The ' Popish Plot ' : 
Titus Gates. — Whigs and Tories. — Tlie Habeas Corpus Act. — The 
Closing Years of the Reign. 



CHAPTER LVIII 

THE REVGLUTIGN GF 1688 

James II. (1685-1688). — James was a true Stuart. He was 
determined from the first to rule absolutely and break down 
the power of Parliament. Besides this, he was a Roman 
Catholic and bent on the overthrow of the Protestant Church 
in England. Soon after he came to the throne, the Protestant 
peasantry in the west of England revolted against him, favor- 
ing the claims of the Duke of Monmouth, an illegitimate son of 
Charles II. This revolt, however, was soon put down, and the 
triumph of rule there was marked by the severest pnnishment. 
The brutal Chief Justice, Jeffreys, was sent into the counties 



THE REVOLUTION OF 1688 431 

which had taken part in the revolt to try those accused of treason. 
The wanton cruelty of Jeffreys and his disregard of all justice 
and law have given to his circuit the name of the Bloody Assizes. 
Nevertheless, the people at large had no sympathy with the 
insurgents, for James had not yet had time to forfeit the loyalty 
of his subjects. 

Arbitrary Conduct of James. — The first Parliament of James' 
was very docile; in fact, its loyalty almost reached the point 
of slavishness. But loyalty to the Church was as strong as 
devotion to the king, who soon entered on a course which 
turned warm friends into bitter enemies. In the first place, 
he tried to remove the restraints from the Catholics, and, in 
violation to the Test Act, to appoint them to public office. 
The army was officered mainly by Roman Catholics. He now 
tried to gain power to disregard any law of which he did not 
approve, and at first was successful. Roman Catholics were 
appointed to some of the most important offices in the city, and 
the attempt was made to put the Church equally under their 
control. 

The Declaration of Indulgence By the Declaration of In- 
dulgence (1687) the king declared that all the penalties against 
nonconformists should be at once suspended. The nonconform- 
ists included Protestant dissenters from the Anglican Church, 
as well as Roman Catholics, and the king hoped that the 
former would come to his support. But the Protestants saw 
the danger of such a course ; for, if the king could sweep away 
the law in regard to religious matters, why could he not also 
do so in regard to political matters ? What, in fact, was to 
prevent his being absolute ? The king ordered the Declara- 
tion of Indulgence to be read from the pulpit of every church. 
Seven bishops sent in a petition against this command ; the 
king chose to regard this as an insult to the crown, and the 
seven bishops were imprisoned and afterwards brought to trial. 
By this time the king's conduct had angered the people and 
their sympathy was fully with the bishops. The news of 
their acquittal was received with great rejoicing. 



432 GENERAL HISTORY 

The Revolution of 1688. — James was no longer young, and if 
the people could have been assured that at his death a Protes- 
tant would come to the throne, they might have been willing 
to endure his tyranny. But a child was born to James by his 
second wife, Mary of Modena, and this seemed to promise a 
continuance of Catholic rule. It was finally decided to invite 
William of Orange (who was a nephew of James) to come to 
England to take possession of the throne. 

Only the blindest folly on the part of the king could have 
driven his subjects to take this step; for many men who had 
previously been intensely loyal and believed that "the king 
can do no wrong " were now his enemies. James seemed to 
have no idea of the condition of affairs, and he disregarded all 
warnings. The landing of William of Orange in November, 
1688, reduced the king to helplessness. The whole nation was 
against him, and he fled in despair. 

These were the main points of the revolution of 1088, — one 
of the least violent and most beneficial of all revolutions. The 
long struggle between the Stuart kings and their subjects came 
to an end with the triumph of Parliament. This does not 
mean, however, that the people of England really gained the 
control of the government. England as a result of the revolu- 
tion of 1688 was, in fact, under an aristocratic parliamentary 
government. Only special and privileged classes were repre- 
sented in the Parliament and the constitution of England did 
not become in any sense democratic, until the Eeform Bill in 
1832. The real control of affairs after 1688 was in the hands 
of Parliament, whose members were chosen by a comparatively 
small number of electors. 

The New Government. — William's title to the throne rested 
on the Declaration of Kights, which, like the Great Charter 
and the Petition of Rights, marks an important stage in the 
development of the English constitution. This settled the 
crown on William and his wife, Mary, so long as they should 
live, and declared that after their death no person who should 
profess the Roman Catholic faith should ever be king or queen 



THE EEVOLUTION OF 1688 



433 



of England. If such person should assume the throne, the 
people were straightway released from their allegiance. 

Scotland loyally accepted the new government, but in Ire- 
land, where the Catholic party was strong, there was opposi- 
tion. The supporters of the fugitive king controlled the Irish 
army, and James determined to gather them in an attempt 
to regain the throne. The English and Scotch colonists of 
Ireland offered a brief resistance to the Catholics, and Wil- 
liam soon entered the country at the head of a consider- 
able force. The war was decided by the battle of the Boyne 
in 1G90, at which AVilliam commanded in person. James 
was here completely routed and he soon afterwards went 
back to France. 

William and Mary. — William was now secure on the throne, 
but he found the task of government difficult. This was, in 
the first place, because he was 
a foreigner and naturally fav- 
ored his kinsmen in appoint- 
ments to office, and, in the 
second place, because he lacked 
tact in dealing with his new 
subjects. Moreover, as time . 
passed, the people forgot the 
faults of the deposed king and 
many of them desired the res- 
toration of the Stuarts. Queen 
Mary, who was by birth a 
Stuart, being the daughter of 
James, died in 1694, and the 
last bond of affection between the Tories and the throne was 
broken. The part which England took in the War of the Pa- 
latinate has been told in the account of Louis XIV. 's reign. 
William, it will be remembered, was bent on the humiliation 
of the French, and he sacrificed everything to success in the 
war with Louis. Wlien the next great war (the War of the 
>Spanish Succession) was impending, William again prepared 




WiLT.rAM OF Orange 



434 GENERAL HISTORY 

to fight his old enemy, but died before any decisive result 
was obtained (1702). 

The Act of Settlement (1701). — The purpose of this act was 
to settle the succession to the English throne. After William, 
the natural successor was Princess Anne of the Stuart family, 
daughter of James II., but in default of heirs to her nothing had 
been provided. The nearest Protestant relative was Sophia, 
wife of the Elector of Hanover ; and on her and her heirs the 
throne was settled. A still more important point in the Act of 
^Settlement was the assertion of the principle that the king's 
ministers were responsible to the Parliament ; and there were 
other important provisions guarding the liberties of that body. 

Queen Anne ; Union of England and Scotland. — The reign of 
Queen Anne is one of the most glorious in English history, but 
this luster was due to circumstances rather than to the qualities 
of the queen. She was not an especially wise woman, but some- 
how she enjoyed to an unusual degree the devotion of her sub- 
jects. This was the time of Marlborough's great victories in 
the War of the Spanish Succession. In this reign also took 
place the union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland. Up 
to this time the two countries had been united merely in the per- 
son of the sovereign. Now in 1707 the union was completed, and 
both countries were represented in one and the same Parliament. 

At the beginning of the reign the Tories were in power ; but 
the Whigs soon gained control, and it was under a Wliig min- 
istry that most of the great successes in the war were gained. 
But the Whigs made some fatal mistakes. It was due to their 
folly that the allies did not accept the terms offered by Louis 
XIY. — terms wliich were far more advantageous than those 
gained after several years more of conflict. This and other 
blunders gave the power again to the Tories, who favored a 
policy of peace. The Treaty of Utrecht, concluding the War 
of the Spanish Succession, was formed in 1713. 

Literary Activity of the Reign. — Queen Anne's reign was 
remarkable, not only for great battles, but for the literary 
activity of the time. Among the leading authors who flour- 



THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 435 

ished during this period were Addison, Swift, Pope, and Defoe. 
Never before had so much literary talent been employed in the 
service of politics. Periodicals and pamphlets on political 
subjects were published in great numbers and circulated ex- 
tensively. This reign saw the publication of the first daily 
newspaper in England. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Revolution of 1688. — James II. : The Suppression of Monmouth's 
Revolt. Chief Justice Jeffrey and the Bloody Assizes. — Arbitrary 
Conduct of James : His Violation of the Test Act. — Tlie Declaration 
of Indulgence : Popular Hatred of James. — The Revolution of 1688 : 
The King's Folly. The Landing of William of Orange. The Char- 
acter of the Revolution. — The New Government: The Battle of 
the Boyne. — William and Mary. — The Act of Settlement. — Queen 
Anne ; Union of England and Scotland. — Literary Activity of the 
Reign. 



CHAPTER LIX 

THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 

The Hohenzollerns. — The history of Prussia is bound up 
with that of the great Hohenzollern family, whose descend- 
ant to-day occupies the German throne. The first that we 
hear of this family is back in the times of Charlemagne, when 
a count belonging to that house was deposed in Bavaria. His 
descendants, however, were men of ability, and toward the 
end of the twelfth century the emperor conferred on one of 
them the government of Nuremberg. After this the family 
became noted for its wealth, and in the fifteenth century held 
a position not unlike that of the Hothschilds of to-day. They 
loaned the emperor Sigisnmnd (1410-1437) the sum of 400,000 
gulden on the security of Brandenburg. The emperor was 
unable to repay the money, and the Hohenzollerns were thence- 
forth electors of Brandenburg. 



436 GENERAL HISTORY 

Early History of Prussia. — In Eoman times the Borussi or 
Prussi inhabited tlie region now known as Prnssia. They were 
a Slavonic tribe and adhered to their pagan worship. It was 
the aim of the Germans in the eleventh century to Christian- 
ize them or drive them out of their land. This task fell to 
the Teutonic Knights, who, after hard fighting, conquered the 
territory from Poland (1226), to which it naturally belonged, 
both from its geographical position and by ties of race. Prom 
the latter part of the thirteenth century to the middle of the 
fifteenth the power of the Teutonic Knights declined, and by 
the Treaty of Thorn (1466) they were obliged to give up 
western Prussia to Poland, retaining eastern Prussia merely 
as a vassal state of the Polish kingdom. Poland was at that 
time at the height of her power, and the Teutonic Knights 
feared that eastern Prussia would also be taken from them. 
They therefore determined to elect as their Grand Master a 
prince of the house of Brandenburg-Anspach in 1511. This 
prince Avas not content with ruling merely as the chief of the 
Teutonic Knights. He made the succession hereditary in his 
family, and changed Prussia to a secular dukedom, rendering 
homage for it to the king of Poland. In 1618, the Branden- 
burg-Anspach line having become extinct, Prussia passed to the 
Elector of Brandenburg, who, according to the feudal law, was 
a vassal of the emperor for Brandenburg and of the king of 
Poland for Prussia. 

The Great Elector (1640-1688). — When the elector Frederick 
William came into power in 1640, he found a very weak and 
ill-joined state. It was a mere collection of provinces, differ- 
ing from one another in laws and separated by foreign terri- 
tories. Between Brandenburg and his Prussian duchy a strip 
of Polish Prussia intervened. The great question was how to 
weld these parts together and become a real ruler. 

His first object was to make himself an absolute monarch. 
To do this, he formed the nucleus of a standing army with a 
small body of mercenaries and, having force behind him, he 
gained all the authority in the state. He spent his whole life 



THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 437 

either in battle or in preparation for battle. During the last 
period of the Thirty Years' War, he maintained an armed neu- 
trality, and at its end gained some territory. In a war between 
Sweden and Poland he allied himself now with one and now 
with the other, as best suited the interest of his house, and he 
gained much by this policy. He encouraged trade, couipleted 
roads, welcomed the Huguenots who fled from France, drove 
the Swedes from Brandenburg, and freed Prussia from the 
control of Poland. Under his vigorous rule feudalism began 
to go to pieces and the foundation of the Prussian monarchy 
was laid. 

Frederick III. — The successor of the great elector was 
Frederick III. (1688-1713), who inherited all the power but 
not the title of a king. The chief event of his reign was the 
obtaining of that title. The means by which he secured it 
was an offer of assistance to the German emperor in the War 
of the Spanish Succession, on condition that the duchy of 
Prussia should be raised to the rank of a kingdom. In the 
year 1701 Frederick was crowned and took his place among 
the kings of Europe. 

Frederick William I. — His successor, Frederick William L, 
was one of the ablest men of his time. He reigned from 1713 
to 1740, and in this interval added vastly to the prosperity 
and power of the state. The king's methods were peculiar, 
for he had many oddities of character. A rigid economy 
was ]3racticed in every department of the government. At a 
time when the monarchs of Europe were ruining themselves 
and their people by their senseless extravagance, Frederick 
AVilliam made himself ridiculous by going to the other extreme. 
On the death of his father he at once dismissed the Avhole 
troop of glittering court flunkies, reduced the expenses of his 
stable, and discarded expensive forms of dress. He believed 
that the life of every one in the kingdom, from the highest to 
the lowest, should be governed by strict frugality and indus- 
try. He would tolerate no idlers, and went about the streets 
striking with his cane any one who he thought was not attend- 
colby's gen. hist. — 28 



438 



GENERAL HISTORY 



ing to his business. It is said of him that he even insisted 
that the apple women should knit at their stands. 

He waged war upon periwigs, and wig inspectors pulled off 
the headgear of the passers-by to see if the government stamp 
was upon it. No long periwigs were allowed, and the story is 
told of him that, desiring to rebuke a foreign ambassador who 
insisted on dressing in the Parisian style, he arrayed the regi- 
mental scullions during a grand review in an absurd exaggera- 
tion of the ambassador's costume, with periwigs reaching to the 
knees, and cocked hats three feet in diameter. After this the 
ambassador adopted a simple dress. 

The other monarchs laughed at the Prussian king's parsi- 
mony and his queer freaks, but they came to feel that he was 
worthy of their respect when they saw the result of that parsi- 
mony. His fiery temper, close attention to detail, and rugged 
despotism were accompanied by shrewdness, vigor of action, 
and a talent for administration. His economy enabled him 
to keep an army of 70,000 men, the best-drilled force in 
Europe, and to lay by every year a balance in the royal treas- 
ury. The administration Avas 
highly centralized. The king 
was in fact an autocrat, but he 
had at heart the welfare of the 
people. Under him and his suc- 
cessor, Frederick the Great, the 
absolute monarchy appears in its 
best and purest form, and Prussia 
was well on its way towards its 
position as one of the great 
modern states. 

Frederick II. (The Great, 1740- 
1786). — The young Frederick 
had been brought up in a rough 
school. His father's strict train- 




Fkedekick the Great 

ing and brutal ways made 
gratify his taste for study. 



his life miserable. He could not 
nor enjoy any liberty of action. 



THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 439 

Heavy tasks were imposed upon him and he was scolded and 
punished for the slightest disobedience. Once he tried to 
escape, but the attempt failed and his tutor who had aided him 
was hanged. He himself narrowly escaped execution by the 
decree of a court-martial. The king's death released him from 
this tyranny and he now found himself the inheritor of a strong- 
state and a splendid army. He was ambitious of military 
fame and wished to raise Prussia to the first place among 
European states. 

War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748). — On the death 
of the Emperor, Charles VI., his daughter, Maria Theresa, suc- 
ceeded to the hereditary dominions of the house of Austria, 
the direct male line having become extinct (1740). The powers 
of Europe in the compact known as the Pragmatic Sanction had 
agreed that the Austrian possessions should descend to her. 
Nevertheless, no sooner had Maria Theresa come to the Austrian 
throne than there was a scramble for parts of her possessions. 
Frederick II. demanded Silesia, and the Elector of Bavaria (who 
was soon elected to the imperial throne as Charles VII.) declared 
himself the lawful heir to the Austrian dominions. France 
joined the Bavarians and Queen Maria Theresa was attacked 
on all sides. 

Seizure of Silesia. — Frederick, having defeated the Austrian s 
in 1741, seized the greater part of Silesia. The French and 
Bavarians invaded the queen's dominions and drove her from 
part of them. But in her distress she appealed to her Hun- 
garian subjects, and gathered an army which drove out the 
invaders and captured the Bavarian capital. Frederick, how- 
ever, retained what he had conquered; for in the Peace of 
Breslau (1742) she consented to this in order that her hands 
might be free to deal with her other enemies. She gained 
the alliance of the English and the Dutch, and in 1743 the 
allies defeated the French at Dettingen. 

The character of the war changed after this ; for England 
had reasons of her own for opposing the French, and now no 
longer fought as a mere ally of Austria, but headed the league 



440 GENERAL HISTORY 

against France and Spain. Frederick became alarmed at the 
success of Austria, fearing that Silesia would be taken from 
him ; for he knew that Maria Theresa was bent on the recovery 
of the lost province. Accordingly he joined the enemies of 
Austria and renewed the war. In 1745 the emperor Charley 
Vll. died and the German princes raised Francis, the husband 
of Maria Theresa, to the imperial throne under the title of 
Francis I. Having succeeded in this, the queen now deter- 
mined to regain Silesia, but the military skill of Frederick 
thwarted her purpose. By the Treaty of Dresden the cession 
of Silesia to Prussia was confirmed. The war dragged on 
several years longer, but without any very decisive gains on 
either side. It was concluded by the Treaty of Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle in 1748, which recognized the election of the emperor, 
and restored most of the conquests made during the war, but 
left Silesia still in the hands of Prussia. 

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763). — During eight years of 
peace Frederick devoted himself to improving the condition 
of his country. He perfected the organization of the army, 
encouraged industry, and added to the wealth of the state. 
War was bound to return, however ; for Maria Theresa could 
not forget the loss of Silesia, and was continually plotting to 
form an alliance against him. Russia, whose empress had 
long been a bitter enemy of Frederick, joined with Austria 
against him. There was a long period of intrigues between 
the different courts, but in the end Saxony and France joined 
the alliance against Frederick. The only power he could 
count as friendly was England, and England's grievance was 
against France, not Austria; for strife had arisen over the 
respective limits of the French and English colonies in 
America. 

Frederick's Successes. — Considering the number and strength 
of his enemies, Frederick's management of the war during its 
early phases entitles him to a place among the foremost gen- 
erals in history. He won his successes by the rapidity with 
which he struck his blows. He did not wait for an attack, 



THE RISE OP PRUSSIA 441 

but took the aggressive, and at the very beginning of the war 
inarched into Saxony and captured its capital. In the next 
year he gained two great victories at Rossbach and Leuthen. 
England now sent him money and troops, and in the following 
year he defeated the Russians at Zorndorf, 

Treaty of Paris. — But he could not hold out against such 
tremendous odds. Fortune turned against him and he was 
defeated in several battles. England now failed to support 
him, and it seemed for a time as if there was no way of avert- 
ing the ruin of his kingdom. In 1760 the Russians captured 
Berlin, but Frederick still managed to keep up a show of 
resistance, and in 1762 a lucky circumstance turned events in 
his favor. The Russian empress died and was succeeded by 
Peter III., who was heartily in sympathy with Prussia. Russia 
not only made peace with him, but sent him aid. Finally all 
the contestants were tired of war and glad to sign a peace. 
The Treaty of Paris and the Treaty of Hubertsburg brought 
the war to a close. Prussia retained Silesia. As a result of 
the war, in spite of the odds against Frederick and the great 
drain on the resources of his kingdom, Prussia gained an un- 
disputed place among the great powers of Europe. 

General Character of the Reign. — Frederick the Great died 
in 1786. His reign marks the transition from the absolute 
monarchy to the modern constitutional state. Not that Fred- 
erick actually ruled as a constitutional king, for all authority 
centered in him. But he introduced a complete system of 
civil liberty, including liberty of the person, of property, and 
of the press, and he established on a firm basis the principle of 
liberty of worship. No king before him had ever done so 
much for the moral and intellectual welfare of the people. 
The effect of his reign was to raise Prussia to an equal rank 
with Austria among the G-erman states, and to give her such 
strength that ultimately, as we shall see, a unification of Ger- 
many was brought about under her leadership. The leading 
state in northern Europe was now no longer Sweden, but 
Prussia. 



442 GENERAL HISTORY 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Rise of Prussia. — The Hohenzollerns : Brandenburg. — Early His- 
tory of Prussia : The Teutonic Knights. The Treaty of Thorn. The 
Elector of Brandenburg acquires Prussia. — The Great Elector : His 
Vigorous Rule. His Policy During the Thirty Years' War. The 
Foundation of the Prussian Monarchy Laid. — Frederick III.: Ac- 
quires the Title of King. — Frederick AYilliam I. : His Economy. 
His Peculiar Traits. His Army. — Frederick 11. (the Great) : His 
Ill-treatment by His Father. — War of the Austrian Succession : Its 
Cause. — Seizure of Silesia : Frederick robs Austria of Silesia. The 
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Silesia remains in Frederick's Hands. 
— The Seven Years' War : Its Causes. — Frederick's Successes. — 
Treaty of Paris. — General Character of the Reign. 



CHAPTER LX 

RUSSIA AND SWEDEN 

Early History of Russia ; the Mongolian Invasion. — Russia 
ranked far behind the other European powers in civilization, 
and was but little influenced by the revival of learning and 
by that spirit of enterprise in all departments of life which 
characterized the beginning of the modern age. A Mongolian 
invasion in the early part of the thirteenth century set Russia 
fully two hundred years behind the other states of Europe in 
point of civilization. The Mongols overran a great part of 
the country, but the little Russian state whose capital was Mos- 
cow later made headway against them. The main interest of 
Russian history during the latter part of the Middle Ages 
and the early modern period centers in the efforts of this little 
state to extend its boundaries and repel the Mongols. The 
energy of the invaders declined after a while, and the Rus- 
sians gradually won their freedom. 

After the middle of the fifteenth century the Muscovite 
kingdom became strong and united, largely owing to the efforts 



RUSSIA AND SWEDEN 



443 



of an able ruler, Ivan III. (1462-1505), snrnamed the Great, 
who regained a large part of Russian territory from the Mon- 
gols. Another reign of great importance in early Russian 
history was that of Ivan IV., snrnamed the Terrible. Under 
him the dominions of Russia were extended to the Caspian 
Sea, the kingdom of Astrakhan was annexed, and western Si- 
beria was conquered. 

The Romanoifs. — In 1613 a new dynasty came to the throne 
of Russia. This was the house of Ro'manoff, a member of 
which holds the throne to this day. Michael, the first of this 
line, was an able ruler and did much to improve the internal 
affairs of his kingdom. Under him and his successor the 
boundaries were enlarged and the condition of the people 
improved, but the relations of Russia to outside powers did 
not become important until the accession of Peter the Great 
(1682). 

Peter the Great. — This prince is one of the most extraordinary 
figures in history. As a boy he showed a great eagerness for 
knowledge in departments which 
were not generally attractive to the 
members of royal families. He 
cared nothing for books, but took 
a keen interest in mechanical de- 
vices, in carpentering, and espe- 
cially in the making and sailing 
of boats. He was impatient of dis- 
cipline and opposition and showed 
at an early age serious defects of 
temper. In fact, except for his 
restless and inquisitive spirit, there 
was little about him to suggest the 
qualities which afterwards made 
him famous. 

His half-sister, Sophia, plotted against him, and at one time, 
through a palace revolution, his life was actually endangered. 
He was obliged to share the throne with his feeble-minded half- 




Peter the Great 



444 GENERAL HISTORY 

brother, and at first his position was insecure. In 1689, however, 
Peter, discovering the plots of Sophia, raised a party against her, 
took the power out of her hands, and shut her up in a convent. 
Ivan was wholly incompetent to rule, and from this time forth 
Peter, though now only seventeen years of age, ruled the state. 

Development of Naval Power. — Peter's early interest in 
naval affairs was destined to have an important influence 
on Russia. One of his strongest ambitions was to make 
Russia a great naval power, and to accomplish this it was, 
of course, necessary to extend her limits to the coast. A 
Swiss adventurer, Lefort, who had traveled much and was 
able to give Peter information about foreign countries, be- 
came the czar's chief favorite. He was a shrewd and able 
man, and rendered Peter important aid in laying the foun- 
dation of the Russian fleet. 

Capture of Azov. — At this time Russia was shut out from 
the Baltic Sea by Sweden and Poland, and from the Black Sea 
by Tilrkey, so that the only port which was available for Rus- 
sia's navy was in the extreme north, the port of Archangel on 
the White Sea. It was Peter's belief that Russia could not 
advance in wealth without a more accessible outlet for com- 
merce than this. He declared that water was what he wanted, 
not land, and he planned first to gain a port on the Black Sea. 
He sailed down the river Don, and after a long siege captured 
the city of Azov on the Black Sea. This success was due in 
part to the aid which Peter had received from Lefort and 
another of his advisers, a Scotchman named Gordon, In the 
reorganization of the army. 

Peter now gathered in from all parts of Europe skilled 
artisans, engineers, and architects ; and many of the young 
nobles were sent abroad to be educated^ with instructions to 
pay special attention to the study of naval and military arts. 

But Peter was not content with bringing foreigners to Rus- 
sia ; he determined to visit western Europe himself and gratify 
his curiosity. Accordingly he set out with a large compa.ny. 
Lefort was at the head of the embassy and Peter attended in 



RUSSIA AND SWEDEN 445 

the guise of a subordinate official. He visited the Baltic prov- 
inces, Germany, and Holland. While in Holland he worked 
as a common laborer in the shipyards at Zaandam. His curi- 
osity was unbounded and his energy seemed almost superhuman. 
He acquired a vast amount of information on all practical sub- 
jects. 

Revolt of the Strelitz. — Peter returned to Russia, to put down 
the revolt of the imperial bodyguard, known as the Strelitz. 
For a long time they had shown an insolent spirit and had been 
too powerful to be disciplined. Revolts had broken out before, 
and their power was a constant menace to the government. 
The revolt was quelled without much difficulty, but Peter de- 
termined that nothing of the kind should happen again. The 
whole force was disbanded and the ringleaders were put to 
death with tortures. It is said that Peter himself cut off the 
heads of some of the conspirators with his own hand. 

Peter's Reforms. — Then followed the introduction of a large 
number of very important reforms, all for the purpose of mak- 
ing Russia a European state. The peculiarity of the Russian 
dress was abolished, and the people v/ere required to dress in 
the manner of the western Europeans. Schools were estab- 
lished, factories completed, a new coinage issued, and the 
country opened up by roads, canals, and a postal system. The 
next great event of his reign was the contest with Sweden 
known as the Great Northern War. 

Sweden. — From the time of Gustavus Adolphus, whose 
brilliant career during the Thirty Years' War has been 
narrated, Sweden advanced rapidly in power. The internal 
administration was improved and Swedish armies Avere suc- 
cessful abroad. At the close of the seventeenth century 
Sweden was the mistress of the Baltic Sea, and on the southern 
coast possessed a strip of territory called Pomerania, which 
from its position naturally belonged to the adjoining German 
states. She also ruled the eastern coast of the Baltic, cutting 
off Russia from the sea. 

Charles XII. — Sweden reached the height of her power dur- 



446 GENERAL HISTORY 

ingthe reign of Charles XII. (1697-1718), a brilliant but eccen- 
tric character, who for many years was the most interesting 
figure in European politics. When he came to the throne, he 
found his country threatened by an alliance of three sovereigns, 
— the King of Denmark, Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony 
and King of Poland, and Peter the Great of Eussia. Their 
object was to appropriate the outlying portions of the Swedish 
territory, which had been gained by the king who had preceded 
Charles on the throne. 

Charles was hardly more than a boy when he was crowned 
king, but he soon gave proof of remarkable ability. The 
Danes began the war, but England took the side of Sweden, 
and William III. sent an English and Dutch fleet to her assist- 
ance. Charles, at the head of a small but well-disciplined body 
of veteran troops, now attacked the Danes and then suddenly 
turned against the Russian army, which he encountered at 
Narva in Livonia (1700). There he completely defeated Peter's 
troops, who were much superior in numbers to his own. Then 
he routed the Poles and Saxons, and forced his enemies to a 
peace containing advantageous terms for Sweden. He com- 
pelled Augustus the Strong to give up his claim to the Polish 
crown, which was then bestowed upon an ally of Charles. 

While Charles was busy in the south, Peter, having repaired 
his losses at Narva, began to encroach on the Swedish lands 
along the Baltic. In that region, on an island at the mouth of 
the river Neva, he laid the foundation of the present city of 
St. Petersburg. 

The Defeat of Charles XII.— In 1708 Charles invaded Eussia 
and planned to march directly to Moscow. He defeated the 
czar's troops, but instead of carrying out his project turned 
into the country of the Cossacks, who were on the point of a 
revolt against the czar. But little aid came from them, and 
the Swedes suffered severely from hardships and privations. 
In 1709 Charles attempted to take the town of Pul'towa, but 
Peter advanced to its relief and a great battle was fought under 
its walls, resulting in the complete victory of the Eussians. 



RUSSIA AND SWEDEN 447 

Charles in Turkey. — This was the turning point in Charles' 
career. He now fled to Turkey, where he was allowed by the 
sultan to remain for several years. He spent his time in plot- 
ting to bring about a war between Turkey and Bussia, and in 
this he was successful at first. An expedition was sent against 
Peter, whose army was caught in a trap and seemed on the 
point of destruction, but was rescued through the diplomacy of 
Catherine, whom Peter afterwards made his wife. A treaty 
was concluded by which Peter lost the port of Azov. Being 
thus shut off from the Black Sea, it was all the more necessary 
that he should succeed in his schemes to secure the Baltic 
coast. 

The Turks were beginning to find Charles a very troublesome 
guest and his position was becoming dangerous. He was at- 
tacked by the sultan's bodyguard and narrowly escaped death. 
With a few comrades, he fled in disguise and returned to 
Sweden. The allies were on the point of renewing the war, 
but Charles entered into a treaty with Peter which postponed 
the conflict. His restless spirit, however, involved him in a 
war with Norway, where he was killed while besieging the 
fortress of Friedrichshall. Though a brave soldier, Charles 
was imprudent and foolish. He had not the art of improving 
an advantage when once gained, and in spite of his victories his 
reign brought disaster to his country. 

The Peace of Nystadt (1721). — The result of the Great North- 
ern War was to break the power of Sweden. Hanover received 
Bremen and Werden in return for a sum of money paid to 
Sweden. The Elector of Brandenburg obtained the larger part 
of Pomerania, thus securing the southern coast of the Baltic. 

More important were the gains of Russia. The Peace of 
Nystadt gave her Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, and a small part of 
Finland. In fact, she controlled the eastern shore of the Baltic 
Sea, thus realizing Peter's ambition to make her a naval power. 
This fact is of the greatest importance ; for not only did the 
possession of the seacoast give Russia an outlet for her trade, 
but it brought her into immediate relations with the civilized 



448 GENERAL HISTORY 

states of Europe. It tended to advance her own civilization 
and at the same time to make her a powerful factor in Euro- 
pean politics. 

As a result of the Great Northern War, Sweden lost her 
place as the first of the northern powers. The leading state 
of the Protestant powers on the continent was now Prussia, 
while Eussia was well started on her way to a position in the 
front rank of European states. 

The Death and Character of Peter the Great. — Peter died in 
1725. No king has ever left a deeper or more lasting impres- 
sion on his country than this remarkable man. He was a good 
type of the brutal and half-civilized Russian of his day. In 
his private life he was a mere savage, without human affections 
and without moral sense. In appearance he was not prepos- 
sessing. He was of great size and strength, but suffered from 
a nervous affection which caused his head to twitch and his 
features to contort. He cared nothing for cleanliness or pro- 
priety in dress and he usually smelt of brandy and vodka. 
He lost his temper at trifles and thrust about with his sword. 
He insulted women, beat his friends, and slapped the faces of 
foreign ambassadors. He murdered a servant with his own 
hand for some slight negligence, and when traveling in Ger- 
many complained because the authorities of a town that he was 
visiting refused to break some one on the wheel in order that 
the guest might see how the machine worked. He exclaimed, 
" What a fuss about the life of a man ! Why not take a mem- 
ber of his own suite ? " 

Among the many illustrations of the brutality of his private 
life is his treatment of his son Alexis, who had joined a party 
that was opposed to the czar's policy. Alexis was condemned 
on the charge of treason, and the cruelty with which he was 
treated, in order to make him confess, caused his death. Some 
even think that he was killed directly by the orders of his 
father. 

But with all this Peter had wonderful vigor of mind and a 
degree of energy which almost surpasses belief. He literally 



RUSSIA AND SWEDEN 449 

whipped and browbeat his subjects into some degree of order 
and decency. By the power of his genius he dragged his 
countrymen along in the path of civilization. To him modern 
Russia owes its greatness. 

Catherine II. — Under Peter's successors the power of Russia 
steadily advanced. The most brilliant reign was that of 
Catherine II., known as Catherine the Great (1762-1796), a 
woman of many vices, but one of the ablest rulers in history. 
She enlarged her dominions and carried Russia farther along 
in the path of improvement. She conquered the Crimea in 
1783, thus securing for Russia a footing on the coasts of the 
Black Sea. Another aim of her policy was the acquisition of 
Polish territory, and for many years she was concerned in 
plots and intrigues for this purpose. One of her lovers, named 
Poniatow'ski, was placed upon the throne of Poland, and the 
plots which led ultimately to the dismemberment of that 
unfortunate state were now begun. 

Poland. — The feudal system persisted in Poland long after 
it had disappeared in the neighboring European states. The 
period of her greatest power was in the thirteenth and four- 
teenth centuries. In 1386 the important duchy of Lithuania 
was united with Poland under a common sovereign, but as the 
feudal government in other states gave place to the stronger 
and more compact monarchy of the modern period, Poland fell 
behind. There was no unity in her system of government ; 
the king had but little power, for the Diet, or assembly of 
feudal lords, could make the laws and in some respects even 
act as executive. This Diet was a singularly cumbrous instru- 
ment. It prevented the king from governing, but could not 
insure good order itself. By the principle of the Liberum 
Veto a single member could prevent all action on the part of 
the Diet, and, as might naturally be supposed, this right was 
frequently exercised. 

The Partition of Poland. — When Catherine's lover Stanislas 
Poniatowski came to the throne, he was obliged to grant civil 
rights to the non-Catholics, but when he tried to do this, the 



450 GENERAL HISTORY 

people opposed it on the ground that he intended to abolish 
the Catholic faith. About this time Russia, in a successful 
war with Turkey, seized the principality of Wallachia and 
that of Moldavia. Austria regarded this as a menace to her 
eastern frontier and opposed Russia's retaining them. To buy 
her off, territory had to be found in some other quarter, and 
the division of Poland offered a tempting means. The condi- 
tion of affairs in that kingdom offered an excuse for interfer- 
ence, for the people had risen agaiust the king. By secret 
treaties between the three eastern powers, Russia, Austria, and 
Prussia, the first partition of Poland was carried out (1772). 
Of the three portions taken from Poland Catherine 11. gained 
the largest, Austria the most populous, and Prussia the small- 
est tract both in extent aud in population, but one of great 
value to the state, since it helped to round out the Prussian 
dominions. 

Second Partition. — There was now some attempt to settle 
the disordered affairs of Poland. A new constitution was 
introduced through the influence of Russia, but it worked 
badly. One party was for it and another against it, and when 
the latter attempted to overthrow it, the former appealed to 
Russia for aid. The Polish patriots, under Kosciusko, made a 
brief but fruitless resistance. They were defeated in the 
battle of Dubienka, and as a recompense for the trouble which 
the foreign powers had been put to by this revolt, another 
partition was made. In this Russia and Prussia took part, 
and again Russia received the lion's share. The Polish Diet 
was obliged to consent (June, 1793). 

Kosciusko ; the Third Partition. — The third partition resulted 
from renewed efforts on the part of the patriots to rescue their 
country. Kosciusko became commander in chief, and the peo- 
ple of Warsaw rose and murdered the Russians there. But 
the same thing now happened as before: the third and final 
partition divided what was left of Poland among her three 
great neighbors. Thus the failure of Poland to work out a 
suitable political system and make herself a strong and united 



ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 451 

state resulted in her overthrow. For centuries she had given 
no j)roof of her ability to govern herself well or advance in 
civilization, and she paid the penalty of this failure by the loss 
of her national existence (1795). The French Revolution had 
now begun, and the partition of Poland had an important influ- 
ence on it ; for the absorption of the eastern powers in the scram- 
ble for Polish territory diverted their attention from affairs in 
France. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Russia and Sweden. — Early History of Russia ; the Mongolian Inva- 
sion. Ivan III. Ivan IV. — The Romanoffs. — Peter the Great : His 
Early Life. Peter's Seizure of the Throne. — Development of Naval 
Power. — Capture of Azov : His Visit to Western Europe. — Revolt 
of Strelitz : Its Suppression. — Peter's Reforms. — Sweden : Her 
Power at the Close of the Seventeenth Century. — Charles XII. : The 
Alliance Against Him. His Brilliant Campaigns. His Victory at 
Narva. — The Defeat of Charles XII. : The Battle of Pultowa. — 
Charles in Turkey : War Between Russia and Turkey. The Return 
and Death of Charles. — The Peace of Nystadt : The Gains of Bran- 
denburg. The Gains of Russia. — The Death and C'haracter of Peter 
the Great. — Catharine II. : Conquest of the Crimea: Her Designs 
on Poland. — Poland : Its Condition. — The Partition of Poland : The 
First Partition. — The Second Partition. — Kosciusko; the Third 
Partition. 



CHAPTER LXI 

ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 

Introduction. — The house of Brunswick, or the Hanoverian 
dynasty, as it is called, came to the throne of England in 1714 
in accordance with the Act of Settlement, which provided that, 
in default of heirs to William and Mary and Queen Anne, the 
throne should go to the heirs of the electress, Sophia, of the 
German principality of Hanover. Thus it came about that 
England passed under the control of a German house, and 
down to Queen Victoria's accession to the throne in 1837 



452 GENERAL HISTORY 



the English sovereigns still retained the royal anthority 
Hanover. 

Reign of George I. (1714-1727). — George I. was a narrow- 
minded and ignorant man, awkward, diffident in manner, and 
unable to speak the English language. He cared more for 
his little kingdom of Hanover than for England, and one 
of the bad results of the introduction of the new dynasty 
was soon apparent in the embroiling of England in foreign 
wars. 

At the beginning of George's reign the Whigs gained con- 
trol of the government. The ' Pretender ' James, the son of 
James II., made an attempt to regain the throne of his father, 
and in 1715 a serious rebellion broke out in Scotland and the 
north of England. But his party, called the Jacobites, were 
soon defeated. The Pretender was a man of no ability, and 
he blundered throughout the campaign. Moreover, the major- 
ity of the English people were too much attached to their 
religion to favor the return of a family which had been so 
closely identified with the Roman Catholic faith. The fact 
that the throne was disputed, however, together with the grow- 
ing dislike which George I.'s character inspired, caused a de- 
cline in the views of royal authority which had formerly 
characterized the Tories. During his reign the old idea of 
the divine right of the king was on the wane, and royal power 
became more limited in consequence. 

The South Sea Bubble. — During this reign occurred the fa- 
mous South Sea bubble. The South Sea Company had been 
formed in 1711 for the purpose of restoring the national credit. 
It was very successful, and important privileges were granted 
to the company. It was a time of rash speculation, as is illus- 
trated by the development of Law's Mississi^jpi scheme in 
France. The South Sea Company bore, in fact, a close resem- 
blance to Law's great venture. Rumors were circulated that 
Peru was about to cede gold mines of incalculable value 
to the country, and all sorts of devices were resorted to to 
raise the price of the stock ; thousands took shares in this and 



1 



ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 453 

Other companies, and the stock rose to a high figure but sud- 
denly the bubble burst, and the stock became nearly worth- 
less, bringing ruin on the nation (1720). 

Walpole —The people vented their wrath on the ministers, 
but they made an exception of Sir Kobert Walpole, who had 
contiimally opposed the South Sea scheme. He came to power 
with the fnll confidence of the people, and for the next twenty 
years was the most prominent figure in English politics He 
was not a man of commanding intellect or lofty morals, but he 
gave England twenty years of unbroken peace and prosperity 
He exalted the power of the House of Commons, and he left 
the Hanoverian dynasty in a condition of security. During 
the closing years of his reign George I. was completely under 

his influence. „ , ^ tt 

Reign of George II. (1727-1760). - Like his father, George II. 
was a man of immoral life, and, like him, too, he fell completely 
under the influence of Walpole; for although at first the king 
was prejudiced against liim, the minister succeeded m working 
his way adroitly into the royal favor/ The early part of the 
reign was a period of prosperity. , 

Walpole's Ministry. -The best feature of Walpole's ministry 
was its moderation. Large classes m England were hostile to 
the king, and the country was divided by political and religious 
strife, but Walpole's moderation and shrewd military policy 
tended to restore harmony. He tried to steer his course by 
public opinion, and to avoid stirring up class prejudices ; and his 
policy in general was characterized by sound common sense, 
especially in financial affairs. He was one of the fi-t ^ng ish 
statesmen to use efficient means for the reduction of the public 
debt, and his success in raising revenue led the king to exclaim 
" Walpole can make gold from nothing." 

On the other hand, he had serious vices. He was coarse and 
brutal in his talk and sensnal in his life. He was the most 
successful briber in England. He could say with reason that 
every man had his price, for his experience seeined to bear 
this out. He reduced corruption to a system and he kept nis 

COLBV'S UEN. HIST. —29 



454 GENERAL HISTORY 

majority in Parliament by a judicious outlay of the money. 
It is said that one million and a half were expended as secret 
service money during his ministry, and for the greater portion 
of this he refused to give any account whatever. 

Fall of Walpole. — He fell from power on account of his 
opposition to war. Hostility sprang up between England and 
Spain over their colonies, and the English people were anxious 
for war. Walpole fought against this until the popular senti- 
ment became too strong for it and he was obliged to declare 
war in 1739, but he carried it on sluggishly and without suc- 
cess, and his ministry lost favor. At last the majority of Par- 
liament turned against him and he resigned in 1742. 

Closing Years of George II. 's Reign. — England gained very 
little by this war, nor did she fare any better when she entered 
the War of the Austrian Succession as the ally of Maria The- 
resa. The English people felt that their interests were being 
sacrificed for the sake of Hanover. Loyalty was at a low ebb. 

The Young Pretender. — At this time the ' Young Pretender,' 
grandson of James IL, landed in Scotland (1745) with the design 
of recovering the throne. The lukewarmness of the people on 
the king's behalf seemed to promise success to this venture. 
The Pretender made a bold march on London, evading the 
English armies, and the Londoners were thrown into a panic, 
but there was dissension in his camp and he had to retreat, and 
the Duke of Cumberland met him on the field of Culloden and 
defeated his army with great loss. This put an end forever to 
the hopes of a restoration of the Stuarts. 

Pitt; Capture of Quebec. — Toward the close of George II.'s 
reign, England's greatest statesman, Pitt the elder, became the 
chief minister and directed the war with Prance. This, it 
will be remembered, was the Seven Years' War in Europe, but 
the main issue between Prance and England had to do with the 
colonial affairs in America. The war was not completed until 
the next reign, but already England had dealt severe blows to 
the Prench power in America. The Erench were driven 'into 
Canada, and in 1759 General Wolfe won his great victory at 



ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 



455 



Quebec. Storming the heights behind the city, he took up his 
position on the Plains of Abraham, and on the following day 
defeated the French in a tierce battle. The English lost their 
brave general, but a few days later they were in possession of 
Quebec. By the treaty of Paris, which ended the war, France 
lost her American colonies. 

George III. (1760-1815). — The first two Hanoverian kings 
Avere ignorant of English poli- 
tics and obliged to rely on their 
ministers. Moreover, they cared 
more for Hanover than for Eng- 
land. But George III. had 
English ideas. He was born and 
educated in England, and he 
made up his mind that he would 
rule in the manner of the old 
kings. He tried to restore the 
power of the crown at the ex- 
pense of Parliament. In pri- 
vate morals and social relations 
he Avas better than his prede- 
cessors, and his character inspired respect. He had the lofti- 
est ideas of royal dignity, and the greater part of his reign 
was taken up with the struggles with Parliament. But though 
he had some good qualities, he was narrow-minded, ill-educated, 
and imprudent. During the first twenty-four years of his 
reign he managed to estrange his people, check the prosperity 
of the nation, and lose forever the American colonies. His 
reign therefore was disastrous. The details of the struggle 
with the American colonies and the rise of the United States 
to the foremost rank among nations do not properly fall within 
the scope of this work. It is sufficient here to state that by 
the treaty of 1783 England's control over the thirteen colo- 
nies was lost forever. 

During the latter part of the reign of George III. he was 
incapacitated for ruling. He was stricken with insanity, and 




George III. 



456 GENERAL HISTORY 

the government passed into the hands of the prince regent, 
afterwards George lY. The most interesting side of the reign 
from the point of view of general history is the relations of 
England with foreign powers and the part she played in the 
wars that arose from the French Revolution. Some account 
of this will be given in the chapters on the French Eevolution. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

England in the Eighteenth Century. — Introduction: The House of 
Brunswick. — Reign of George I. : Suppression of the Jacobite Rising 
in Scotland. — The South Sea Bubble. — Walpole : His Peaceful 
Policy. Prosperity of the Country during His Ministry. — Reign of 
George II. — Walpole's Ministry : His Politic Administration. His 
Resort to Bribery. — Fall of Walpole. — Closing Years of George II. 's 
Reign. The Young Pretender: His Army Defeated at Culloden. — 
Pitt; Capture of Quebec. — George III.: His Character. His High 
Ideas of Royal Power. 



CHAPTER LXII 

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

Introduction. — In the period whose events have just been 
described the main interest was centered in the rivalry of the 
European nations. From the close of the Thirty Years' War in 
1648 to the latter part of the eighteenth century the external 
relations of the great powers have been chiefly the subject of 
discussion. In regard to their internal politics not much has 
been said except in the case of England, which during the 
period of civil war and revolution (1640-1688) had undergone 
important political changes. In the closing years of the eight- 
eenth century France passed through a political convulsion 
which not only changed completely her form of government and 
the relation of her social classes, but influenced all the other 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 457 

nations of Europe and drew them into one of the severest and 
most protracted struggles that they ever passed through. The 
Eevohitionary Epoch lasted from 1789 to 1815, and it divides 
itself naturally into two parts : first, the Period of the French 
Revolution, and second, the Period of the Napoleonic Wars. 

France after Louis XIV. — It had long been the policy of the 
French court to attract the nobility to Paris and to make them 
mere personal servants of the king. The object was to break 
down their feudal authority, and, while leaving them in pos- 
session of the revenues from their estates, to place the actual 
government of those estates wholly in the hands of the king's 
agents. The people did not benefit by this change, for from 
them was wrung not only the money which was due to their 
lords, but a sum sufficient to pay the expenses of their gov- 
ernment. Louis XIV. left a debt variously estimated at from 
2,400,000,000 to 3,500,000,000 francs, and the payment of this 
enormous obligation was one of the duties devolving upon the 
government that succeeded him. 

France under the Regency. — As Louis XV. was a minor, the 
administration was placed in the hands of a regent, the Duke 
of Orleans. The regent showed no wisdom as a ruler, and 
France was decidedly the worse for his government. He was 
quite incompetent to deal with the financial question and he 
adopted schemes which left the country poorer than before. 

John Law. — The man who was responsible for the most dis- 
astrous experiment that the government of a civilized state 
ever made in financial affairs was John Law, a Scotch adven- 
turer and gambler. After a period of gay living and reckless 
gambling in London, he crowned his career by a duel in 
which he killed his antagonist and which landed him in 
prison. But he escaped to the continent and continued to 
frequent the gaming tables, with the result of soon making 
good his losses. Law's head was full of schemes for making 
money, and he believed that a very large amount of paper 
currency could be kept in circulation on the basis of a very 
small security. The regent of France showed him some favor 



458 GENERAL HISTORY 

and listened to liis ingenious proposals looking to the rescue 
of the government from its financial troubles. In 1716 Law 
organized a bank, managed it well, and made it popular. The 
notes of this bank, in fact, stood at a premium over the old 
government notes. This won the confidence of the government, 
which in December, 1718, turned Law's bank into a state bank. 

Law's Monopolies. — Now Law wished to get possession of 
the gold and silver in the country and then issue paper money 
to any amount, but, lest people should come to doubt the value 
of this paper money, he thought it necessary to create some 
artificial means to keep the notes in circulation ; that is, to pre- 
vent their being presented for payment in gold and silver. This 
artificial means he found in the formation of the so-called Mis- 
sissippi Company for colonizing the Mississippi valley and de- 
veloping its resources, and he received from the government a 
monopoly for this purpose for twenty-five years. All commerce 
between France and her colony of Louisiana, as well as the abso- 
lute title to the territory of that colony, was vested in this 
company. The wealth of the region was of course large if it 
could once be developed ; for it must be remembered that the 
colony of Louisiana contained, besides the present state of that 
name, all of the Mississippi valley, including several of the 
largest states in our union. To this vast corporation were 
added the Company of the East Indies and the Company of 
China ; and Law further gained control of the coinage of the 
precious metals and the collection of the taxes. 

As the price of these great concessions, he assumed the pub- 
lic debt, loaning the government the entire amount. Thus the 
company became the great financial machine of the state. The 
next thing was to devise a plan for keeping the notes of the bank 
in circulation. This was done by providing that they should 
be accepted at a premium over all other forms of currency in 
the purchase of shares in the company. Thus if a man wished 
to take part in this great project for making unlimited wealth, 
he would naturally wish to obtain these notes in order to pur- 
chase shares in the company. So if Law could only keep up 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 459 

the credit of the company, he could issue paper money to his 
heart's desire. 

The Mississippi Bubble. — This was a time of great credulity 
among all classes of people, and the laws governing money, 
credit, and trade were little understood. Through John Law's 
clever management a fever of speculation in Mississippi stock 
broke out among the people. In 1719 the shares began to go 
up with amazing rapidity. In the spring of that year the 
shares were at par ; that is to say, they could be purchased for 
the sum of 500 livres. In the fall their price went up to 5000 
livres, and a little later it is said that as much as 20,000 livres 
was paid for a single share. All classes of society shared in 
the craze. A valet is said to have become Avorth 50,000,000 
livres; a bootblack 40,000,000, and a restaurant waiter 
30,000,000. The word ' millionaire ' came now for the first time 
into use. Many curious tales are told of the sudden gain of 
private fortunes ; of the transition from poverty to vast wealth 
in a single day ; of errand boys sent out by their masters to 
make a purchase, stopping to speculate in shares with the 
purchase money and gaining a fortune in a few hours. The 
government could now make all the money it needed and was 
relieved from the necessity of taxation. 

The Collapse of the Bubble. — But it soon became evident to 
some wise heads that the company did not really earn money 
from its plantations and its trade, but that it merely paid out 
its dividend from the money which was paid in for shares. 
In other words, it gave back a part of Avhat it received from 
its customers under the pretense that it was paying something 
additional from wealth which it had itself gained. These pru- 
dent people kept their own counsel and began to hoard gold and 
silver. The people, seeing the gold and silver disappear, be- 
came frightened. Soon the credit of the company began to top- 
ple and Law's desperate efforts to restore confidence failed. 
The collapse was as complete as the inflation. The notes sank 
in value, and the more they were issued the lower they fell. 
The government tried to stop their depreciation by a decree 



460 GENERAL HISTORY 

forbidding the use of gold and silver. This only made mat- 
ters worse. The stock of the Mississippi Company fell in 
twelve months from forty times its par value to nine per cent. 
The notes became worthless and two thirds of the paper was 
suppressed. 

Results of the Financial Folly. — The government was deeper 
than ever in debt and the x^eople became more hostile to it. 
The property of the country had changed hands, passing, in 
many instances, from honest but imprudent farmers and ar- 
tisans to shrewder but less worthy people. The belief that 
money could be made without work demoralized society. 
The peasants had flocked to Paris to get rich b}" speculation, 
and were left destitute. The whole industrial and commercial 
life of France was corrupted. The importance of this as 
bearing on the causes of the French Revolution .is very great, 
for the main thing that drove the people of France to revolt 
was the government's foolish and injurious financial policy. 
Following this period of trouble and confusion came the reign 
of Louis XV., one of the most impotent and disreputable of 
French kings. 

France under Louis XV. (1723-1774). — No king ever came to 
the throne with a stronger hold on the loyalty of his subjects 
than Louis XV., and no king ever left it more generally hated 
or despised. Yet the period of Louis XV.'s reign was not 
wholly one of humiliation for France. She won some credit 
by her share in the War of the Polish Succession (1733-1735), 
and in the War of the Austrian Succession, and by a tempo- 
rary conquest in India. The result of her long war with 
England, which came to an end by the Treaty of Paris (1763), 
was, as we have seen, unfortunate, for it put an end to her 
power in the Western Hemisphere. Xeither the blame nor 
the credit for her foreign policy, however, belongs to Louis 
XV., who lived merely for pleasure and had a marked distaste 
for rule. During the first and best part of his reign affairs 
were fairly well managed by his minister Fleury, but the 
later years were filled with failures and national disgrace. 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 461 

The wars cost France enormous sums and the bad manage- 
ment of her finances reduced her to bankruptcy. All the old- 
time devotion of the people to the throne disappeared, for 
no one could long admire a man of Louis' character. The 
absolute monarchy in France depended for success upon the 
personal character of the king, and when that character was of 
a kind to inspire contempt, the whole system was weakened. 
Louis had no sense of responsibility for this. His only care 
was that the state should last as long as he did. His successor 
must look out for himself. 

Causes of the Revolution : First, Condition of the People. — 
Probably the French peasants were no worse off, so far as 
oppressive government was concerned, than those of other 
countries, but they felt their burdens more. They were in- 
creasing in intelligence and able to appreciate the injustice of 
their lot. Moreover, the middle class was active and alert. 
Its members had increased in wealth, and yet were shut out 
from all political rights. The years just preceding the French 
Eevolution were years of scarcity in parts of France, and the 
suffering among the lower classes was intense. A fairer ad- 
justment of the burden of taxation would have prevented 
this, but, as matters stood, wealth was confined largely to the 
privileged classes, the nobility and clergy, who, while owning 
the largest share of the property, bore few of the burdens of 
taxation. 

Second, Intellectual Revolt. — The French literature of the 
last half of the eighteenth century was full of skepticism and 
speculation. It showed a tendency to break with authority in 
all departments of thought. Voltaire had attacked creeds and 
preached the doctrine of perfect freedom of belief. Rousseau 
wrote that all men were equal, and that the possession of 
power by a class or a ruler was the result of force and fraud. 
Montesquieu had reasoned about the functions and proper 
limitations of governments. On all sides there was a tendency 
to test everything by reason and to break with tradition. It 
was a time of free thought and radical sentiments on all sub- 



462 GENERAL HISTORY^ 

jects, and politics was affected by it in common with the rest. 
There was great zeal for the improvement of the condition of 
the people, and much faith in the brotherhood of humanity and 
the rights of men. People dreamed of a return of a " golden 
age," in which all men should be equals and brothers. These 
views found their way even among the lower classes, and were 
there translated into plans for the immediate bringing about of 
this glorious state of things. 

Third, The American Revolution. — This was, no doubt, an ap- 
proximate cause for the revolution in France. Some French- 
men had returned from America, where they saw the success- 
ful operation of an economical democratic government which 
seemed to be a realization of the dreams of men like Rous- 
seau. They wished to see the same state of things in France. 
Their favorable accounts of American democracy exerted a 
wide influence, and everywhere men contrasted the govern- 
ment across the sea with that Avhich they knew at home. The 
result was discontent and a determination to bring about a 
better condition of affairs. 

Louis XVI. — Louis XVI. was a man of good impulses but 
weak will. He was called upon to face problems which would 
have puzzled a man of real genius, and he himself lacked even 
ordinary ability. He distrusted himself and inspired no con- 
fidence in others. The first great question he had to deal with 
was the matter of revenues. In spite of the treuiendous bur- 
den of taxation, the government was poor and in debt, and the 
debt was constantly increasing. The only possible remedy was 
the fair taxation of the classes that had the wealth, namely, 
the clergy and the nobility, instead of seizing the earnings of 
the wretched peasantry. In man}^ parts of France the peas- 
antry, after paying their taxes, were left in a condition of 
absolute destitution. 

Louis XVI. allowed his minister, Turgot, the ablest adviser 
of his time, to fall, because he proposed to tax the class hith- 
erto untaxed. Louis preferred to postpone difficulties rather 
than to meet them. His minister, Necker, and later his min- 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 463 

ister, Calonne, followed the plan of raising money without 
shifting the burden of taxation. For a while all went well, 
but Calonne's scheme consisted merely in the simple device 
of borrowing, and at the end of three years he showed an 
addition of 1,000,000,000 francs to the debt. Then he fell 
back on the plan proposed by Turgot, — the taxing of the 
nobility and the clergy. This, of course, was a confession of 
utter failure, but the king in desperation agreed to it. 

The States-General. — Before taxing the clergy and the nobil- 
ity, however, the king wished to gain the consent of an Assem- 
bly of the Notables, but this assembly was composed chiefly of 
the very classes whom it was designed to tax. Naturally they 
would not consent, but proceeded to inquire into the conduct 
of the minister who had dared to make such a proposal. 
Calonne had to resign his place. The Assembly of the Nota- 
bles proposed certain measures of relief which were then 
referred to the Parliament of Paris. The latter body promptly 
said that the only organ of government entitled to decide the 
matter was the States-General. 

The States-General, comprising the clergy, the nobility, and 
the Third Estate, the last named being the representatives of 
the middle class, had not met in France since the year 1614. 
It was an old established rule of the States-General that the 
three classes represented in it should each have one vote, 
voting by orders and not individually. This, of course, would 
prevent the Third Estate from controlling the action of the 
body ; for, the interests of the clergy and the nobility being the 
same, these two classes would combine against the former. 
The States-General met on May 5, 1789, and fell to fighting at 
once about this method of voting. If the new principle were 
admitted that each member should have a vote, it was sure to 
place the Assembly in the control of the party of reform ; 
for the Third Estate numbered about one half of the whole 
Assembly, and they had many friends among the higher nobil- 
ity and the lower clergy. There was a sharp debate for many 
days, but on June 26 the two upper classes gave way. This 



464 aENERAL HISTORY 

turned the old States-General into a body governed by a wholly 
new principle. It was an action without precedent and in 
effect revolutionary. The new body was called the National 
Assembly ; when it ultimately assumed the power of making a 
new constitution for France, it was also called the Constituent 
(constitution-making) Assembly. 

The National Guard. — When the conflict was going on be- 
tween the classes in the States-General, the king, fearing a 
revolt, gathered his forces to suppress it. The National 
Assembly, which had now come into existence, looked upon 
this act as a threat and demanded that a force should be 
raised for its defense. A committee of the electors of Paris 
thereupon created such an organization. It was a militia 
force of 48,000 men, and received the name of the National 
Guard. Lafayette was placed in command. This body, be- 
ing composed of strong sympathizers with the revolution, was 
destined to play a very important part in the events which 
followed. 

The Years 1788 and 1789. — These were years of bad crops 
and industrial depression. All efforts to relieve the condi- 
tion were in vain. Thousands were without means of subsist- 
ence, and men roamed about the country in bands, robbing and 
intimidating citizens. In the provinces the laws were disre- 
garded and the attitude of the people was so threatening that 
many of the courts dared not punish the offenders. Lawless 
mobs destroyed the forests, or wandered about forcing people 
to give them food or money. 

In Paris the condition was especially bad. The ignorant, 
the vicious, and the criminal flocked there in thousands, led by 
the hope of plunder, public or private. National workshops 
were set up to keep these dangerous visitors quiet, but half- 
clad groups of ill-looking men prowled the streets, robbed 
the shops, and defied the police. When the philosophy of 
the equality of man reached the minds of the ignorant and the 
vicious, it was taken by them in a very literal spirit. It meant 
the right of interference with every act of government, a con- 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 



465 



tempt for law, and the hanging up of suspected enemies at 
the nearest lamp-post.^ 

The Taking of the Bastile (July 14, 1789) The Parisian mob, 

not satisfied with the formation of the National Assembly, 
demanded to be armed in their own defense ; and when this 
was refused, rushed off to seize the store of arms kept in the 
Hotel des Invalides. Angered by the report that the guns 
of the old prison of the Bastile were to be trained on the 




Taking of the Bastile 



people, they suddenly gathered around its walls and began an 
attack. This ancient prison had been the scene of many op- 
pressions in the past. Its foul dungeons and the sufferings of 
those who were confined there had made it an object of popu- 
lar hatred. During Louis XVI. 's reign, however, it had fallen 
into disuse, and it can not be said that at that time it was 
1 Taine, Historrj of the French Revolution. 



466 GENERAL HISTORY 

worse than any other prison. Nevertheless, to the mob it 
still stood as the symbol of despotism. 

The governor of the prison surrendered, but the mob mur- 
dered him, together with some others, and carried the heads of 
their victims on pikes through the streets. The few prisoners 
that were within Avere set free. Although there was nothing 
especially heroic about the taking of the Bastile, the event was 
of great significance, for it seemed to say that a new age had 
begun. Throughout Europe it was looked upon as a triumph 
of the people over despotism, and by the liberals of all coun- 
tries it was hailed with joy. 

The Abolition of Privileges (August 4, 1789) . — In the meanwhile 
the work of reformation in the National Assembly was going 
on, but before building up the new system it was necessary to 
pull down the old. The date, August 4, 1789, is memorable in 
the history of the Eevolution. When the session of the As- 
sembly closed late that night, France had undergone a great 
change. All those privileges of special classes, which had 
been so detestable to the people, were swept away. Slavery 
was abolished in all the lands belonging to France. Serfdom 
and the feudal privileges and authority of the nobles were also 
done away with, and equality of taxation for all classes was 
decreed. An enthusiasm for popular rights seized the Assem- 
bly, and even nobles vied with each other in renouncing the 
privileges for which in the past they had fiercely contended. 
Some who had been carried away by the impulse of the 
moment repented when it was too late. What had been done 
endured. The changes, which in other countries were the 
work of a century, were brought about in France in a single 
night. 

'The Joyous Entry.' — The king and court were still at Ver- 
sailles, but the friends of the Eevolution felt that it would be 
safer to have them where they could be more closely watched. 
It was a time of scarcity and people were crying for bread. 
A court banquet, held at Versailles, was the occasion of some 
foolish speeches which were taken by the mob as signs of hos- 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 467 

tility toward the popular cause. It was said that the national 
emblems were insulted, and that it was planned to restore the 
king to his former rights. This enraged the mob, and a crowd 
of rough characters, including many women of the lower 
classes, went to Versailles and broke into the palace of the 
royal family, who were saved only by the aid of Lafayette and 
the National Guard. But the mob, with threats of violence, 
demanded that the king should go to Paris ; and on October 6, 
1789, the royal family, in the midst of a swarm of ragged ruf- 
fians, proceeded to the city. Soon afterwards the National 
Assembly was transferred to Paris. The importance of this is 
that henceforth the king and Assembly were under the watch- 
ful eye of the people. Any faltering on the part of either was 
the signal for threats from without, and the government more 
and more came under the rule of the mob. 

Political Clubs. — The fiercer spirits of the Revolution bound 
themselves together in political clubs. Of these the chief was 
the Jacobin Club, which derived its name from its meeting 
place — a building formerly occupied by the Jacobin monks. 
Its object was constant agitation for the most radical changes 
in the government. It had branches all over France, and it 
became the greatest power in the state. At first it was com- 
paratively moderate, but it finally contained among its members 
the most violent leaders of the Ee volution. Among them was 
an insignificant little man at whom the other members laughed 
at first, but who was soon to become the most powerful force 
in the Revolution. This was Robespierre, the representative 
of the most radical element in Paris. 

Another club was the Cordeliers, which also, curiously 
enough, was named after an order of monks. The members 
of this club were thoroughgoing Republicans, content with 
nothing less than the overthrow of the monarchy. Among 
their leaders was the great orator, Danton, the brutal and half- 
crazy Marat, and the vicious and bloodthirst}^ Hebert, all of 
whom figured prominently in the events that followed. 

Emigration of the Nobles. — After the taking of the Bastile, 



468 GENERAL HISTORY 

the nobles began to leave the country. Among the first to 
take flight was the king's brother, the Count of Artois, and 
he was followed by a host of others of lower rank. For this 
desertion of their country in a time of peril they have been 
greatly blamed. Their fear was natural in view of the ex- 
cesses of the revolutionists, but their flight was neither patri- 
otic nor politic. In the first place, it took away what might 
have been a check on the violence of the new movement, and 
the Revolution went farther than it might have gone had the 
nobles remained. This resulted not only from the fact that a 
conservative influence was withdrawn, but from the policy which 
the deserters followed in foreign countries. Their constant 
efforts were directed toward the stirring up of foreign powers 
against France for the purpose of restoring the king to his 
former position. Such a course naturally appeared to the pro- 
gressive party as treasonable. It stung the people to fury and 
endangered the king, who was constantly suspected of being in 
communication with the enemies of France. 

The King's Attempted Flight. — The king's position had be- 
come unendurable. He was a virtual prisoner in Paris, and 
his friends beyond the borders dared not take any step on his 
behalf lest it should bring down upon him the anger of the 
mob. He was exposed to insults and subjected to restraints, 
and every day the mob was becoming more unmanageable. 

At last a plan wa^ formed for the king's escape. Leaving 
Paris by night, the royal family fled in disguise toward the 
border, planning to join a body of regular troops that had been 
appointed to meet them. They had almost gained a place 
of safety when the ]30stmaster of a little village through 
which the royal coach was passing recognized the king and 
reported his discovery to the authorities. Louis was captured 
at the village of Varennes, June 21, 1791. This unsuccessful 
attempt at escape made his position worse than ever, for thence- 
forth he was more vigilantly guarded and his every act was 
viewed with suspicion. 

The New Constitution. — The National Assembly came to an 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 469 

end on September 30, 1791. It is important to see what it had 
accomplished. In the early part of its session its work was, 
on the whole, good and found sympathy among liberal minds 
everywhere. But it went on in the path of the Kevolution 
until it had created a political system entirely different from 
anything that France had known before. Little was left to 
remind a Frenchman of the past either in civil or religious in- 
stitutions. It disregarded all the historical divisions of France, 
redistricting the entire country. It made all offices elective, 
even judges and juries in criminal cases, all citizens who paid 
a certain yearly tax having the right to vote. 

The change was altogether too violent. The good things 
of the past had been swept away along with the bad. The 
king was a mere figurehead and could not appoint the hum- 
blest officer in the smallest local division of the new state. 
Being completely cut off from the people, he had no means of 
knowing their wants. It was a weak, ill-joined form of gov- 
ernment. Each little locality was in effect a petty independ- 
ent state, loosely connected with the larger divisions and 
beyond the reach of the central authority. The principle of 
popular elections was carried even into the army, whose officers 
were chosen by the troops, the command in chief being vested 
in the Assembly. 

Organization of the Church. — Changes of a somewhat simi- 
lar character were made even in religious affairs. The Church 
was reorganized by the so-called Constitution of the Clergy. 
This limited the number of the clergy and set up the entirely 
new principle that the people were to choose the ecclesiastics. 
Such a principle was wholly opposed to the spirit of the Church, 
and no true Roman Catholic could conscientiously admit it. 
It sought to abolish by law one of the cardinal principles of 
the Church ; viz. the idea that authority came from above, not 
from the people. The king, as a good Catholic, loathed such 
a violation of the spirit of his religion, and the clergy, so far as 
they were true to the old faith, could not accept the change. 
Very few of the higher clergy signed the constitution, and of 
Colby's gkn. hist. — 30 



470 ■ ■ GENERAL HISTORY 

the lower orders about 50,000 refused to sign. Thus a 
large and powerful class in the state were turned into enemies 
of the national constitution. They became a dangerous ele- 
ment, opposing, with good reason, the tyranny of the Assembly. 
Mirabeau. — In the early history of the Revolution there 
was one statesman whose ability far exceeded that of his 
fellows and whose genius at first controlled the movement. 
This was Mirabeau. He favored a limited monarchy and had 
no sympathy with the extremists. Unfortunately for France, 
Mirabeau died in the spring of 1791, and the one man who 
possibly could have restrained the madness of his countrymen 
was removed. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The French Revolutiox. — France after Louis XIV. : The Bad Condi- 
tion of Finances. — France Under the Regency. — John Law: His 
Early Career. His Bank. — Law's Monopolies : The Mississippi Com- 
pany. The Company of the East Indies, and the Company of China. 
The Great Powers Intrusted to Law. — The Mississippi Bubble : 
Rapid Rise in the Price of Shares. The Fever of Speculation. The 
Company's Methods. — The Collapse of the Bubble: The Fall in 
Price. — Results of the Financial Folly. — France Under Louis XV.: 
Her Foreign Policy. The Character of Louis. — Causes of the Revo- 
lution : First, Condition of the People. — Second, Intellectual Revolt. 
— ^ Third, The American Revolution. — Louis XVI. : His Character. 
The Taxation of the Privileged Classes. Turgot. Necker. Calonne. 
— The States-General : The Occasion Summoning It. Transformed 
into the National Assembly. — The National Guard. — The Years 
1788 and 1789 : The Prevalence of Lawlessness. — The Taking of the 
Bastile. — The Abolition of Privileges. — 'The Joyous Entry': The 
Royal Family Forced to Stay in Paris. — Political Clubs : The Jaco- 
bins. The Cordeliers. — Emigration of the Nobles : Its Effect. — The 
King's Attempted Flight : His Failure. — The New Constitution. — 
Organization of the Church. — Mirabeau. 



CHAPTER LXIII 

FRANCE UNDER THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY 

The Legislative Assembly. — The Legislature under the new 
constitution was called the Legislative Assembl}^, which came 
together on October 1, 1791, and remained in session for 
nearly one year, that is, to September 21, 1792. It was com- 
posed of far more radical members than the National Assembly ; 
for the latter body had passed a self-denying ordinance, exclud- 
ing all its members from sitting in the new Assembly. ThuS; 
the latter body was made up of men without political experi- 
ence. They were, moreover, as a rule young and without much 
property. The restraint which experience and age impose^ 
and the conservative influences which come from the possession 
of property, were thus withdrawn. 

Parties. — There were three parties in the Assembly : first, 
the Constitutionalists, who favored the constitutional mon- 
archy ; second, the Girondists, or moderate Kepublicans ; 
third, the Mountain, so called from their higher seats in the 
house, comprising Jacobins and Cordeliers, and sometimes 
called Eed Eepublicans. The last were the most extreme of 
all, favoring the leveling of all ranks of society and the intro- 
duction of a pure democracy. 

The government of France was really in the hands of this 
Assembly, for the power of the king amounted to nothing. 
But there was a powerful body whose influence on the law- 
makers was constantly increasing. This was the government 
of the city of Paris, the Commune, many of whose members 
were also members of the Assembly. Its influence was always 
on the side of the most extreme measures, and some of the 
worst features of the Revolution were due to it. 

The attitude of the Assembly toward the king was not only 
one of independence, but even of superiority. Its members 
showed him no reverence, and some were for stripping the 
throne of its outward dignities. 

471 



472 GENERAL HISTORY 

Austria and Prussia. — It is probable that other European 
powers would have interfered in France long before this if it 
had not been that their attention was taken up with the affairs 
of Poland and the designs of Eussia in the East. The three 
eastern states of Europe, Austria, Prussia, and Eussia, had 
their eyes on Poland with a view to getting their proper share 
of that country when the time for dividing it up among them 
had arrived. Eussia, too, was apparently plotting to seize a 
part of Turkey, and this offered another absorbing subject for 
the consideration of European courts. 

JSTevertheless, in 1791 the King of Prussia and the Em- 
peror issued the so-called Declaration of Pilnitz, summon- 
ing the other powers of Europe to join them in rescuing the 
French king from the foes of monarchy in France. The effect 
of this was to bring the Girondist party, who favored war, 
into power, and the following spring France declared war 
against the Emperor. The command of the French forces 
was given to Dumouriez, a general of exceptional talent, 
but the troops were ill-disciplined, while those of the allies 
were better trained and more numerous. The army of the 
allies under the Duke of Brunswick crossed the French border 
and advanced toward Paris. The duke, feeling that resist- 
ance Avas impossible, issued a manifesto (July 26, 1792), com- 
manding the French people to obey their king, and threatening 
Paris with destruction if its citizens harmed the royal family. 

Massacre of the Swiss Guards. — This insulting manifesto of 
the Duke of Brunswick threw the people into a frenzy of rage. 
In their first unreasoning excitement they determined to make 
the king their victim. A crowd of men from Marseilles 
entered Paris and demanded that the tyrant should be struck 
down. On August 10 a mob surrounded the Palace of the 
Tuileries, which was defended by a force of about 1000 Swiss 
Guards. The king and royal family took refuge in the hall 
of the Assembly, but the Swiss Guards stood their ground. 
Their resistance Avas brave but utterly hopeless, and they w^ere 
surrounded by the mob and butchered without mercy. Be- 



FRANCE UNDER THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY 473 

sides the fine example of heroism and loyalty afforded by the 
victims, the massacre is significant as showing that the Revolu- 
tion was passing more and more into the hands of the Commune. 

September Massacres. — The brutality of this day was far 
surpassed by the September massacres ; for the murder of the 
Swiss Guards was committed under the blind excitement of the 
moment, while the massacres that followed were deliberately 
planned in advance. The news of several reverses in the war 
added to the fury of the people. Longwy was taken by the 
Prussians and the city of Verdun surrendered to them. At 
the same time there was a revolt of the peasants in the prov- 
ince of La Vendee, where loyalty to the king and nobles was 
still strong. The people of Paris suspected treachery on every 
side, and the mere fact that a man had been at one time loyal 
to the throne was enough to cost him his liberty and endanger 
his life. Hundreds were thrown into prison and there detained 
on mere suspicion, and bands of ruffians were hired to search 
the houses of Paris for suspected persons. 

The prisons were full. They were soon to be emptied by a 
very simple method. The revolutionary government of the 
city, that is, the Commune, hired bands of ruffians to purge 
the prisons. One after another the jails were visited and the 
inmates butchered, their bodies being thrown out to the blood- 
thirsty crowd. 

Such were the famous September massacres, or, as they are 
sometimes called, the 'Jail Delivery.' It is said that the 
number of victims was about a thousand. Everything shows 
that the deed was carefully planned. The leaders of the Com- 
mune were responsible, but the savage mob cheered on the 
work. 

Battle of Valmy. — As time went on, the French army gained 
in discipline and strength ; for whatever the faults of the revo- 
lutionists, they managed to choose the right men to command 
their armies, and to inspire in both officers and troops the 
greatest possible enthusiasm and loyalty to the new France. 
The allies, on the other hand, were not well officered, and they 



474 GENERAL HISTORY 

were, besides, divided in their plans. They lost some time in 
debating whether they should push directly on toward Paris, 
and when they decided at last to do this, the skillful leader of 
the French, Dumouriez, had gathered his troops together on 
the Belgian border and placed a strong force on the hill of 
Valmy. The Duke of Brunswick attacked this, but the 
French fought well, their position was favorable, and after a 
short time the allies retreated. It was not in itself a great 
victory, but it had the effects of one. The Prussian troops 
were withdrawn on account of Russian intrigues over Poland, 
and the French were now free to invade the Austrian Nether- 
lands. They won a great battle near Jemapes, and the 
Austrian Netherlands were gained for France. Almost at the 
same time Nice and Savoy were overrun by the French. These 
victories greatly strengthened the cause of the Revolution, 
inspiring confidence at home and fear abroad. The Legislative 
Assembly came to an end immediately after the battle of 
Valmy, September 21, 1792. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

France Under the Legislative Assembly. — The Legislative Assem- 
bly : The Self-denying Ordinance. — Parties : The Constitutionalists. 
The Girondists. The Mountain. The Attitude Toward the King. — 
Austria and Prussia : The Declaration of Pihiitz. The Duke of 
Brunswick's Manifesto. — Massacre of the Swiss Guards. — Septem- 
ber Massacres : The Occasion of them. Responsibility for the Deed. 
— Battle of Valmy : The French Successes. 



CHAPTER LXIV 

FRANCE UNDER THE NATIONAL CONVENTION 

(1792-1795) 

Formation of the Republic. — There were no monarchists in 
the jSTational Convention. All were repnblicans ; but these 
were divided into the Girondists, who favored a moderate 



FRANCE UNDER THE NATIONAL CONVENTION 475 

policy, and the Jacobins, who represented the most extreme 
element of the revolutionists. 

The first work of the Convention was to abolish the king- 
ship and proclaim the E,epublic. After this -the Convention 
was the sole executive and legislative head of the nation. 
September 22, 1792, the day following the establishment of 
the Republic, Avas reckoned as the first day of a new era, being 
the first day of the Year One in the Republican Calendar, 
which was in force from 1793 to 1805. 

The Girondists were the most numerous party in the Conven- 
tion, but the ' Mountain,' chiefly Jacobins, was the strongest ; 
for behind the Jacobins was the Commune, and behind the 
Commune was the mob of Paris. The leaders of the Mountain 
or Jacobin party were Danton, Marat, and Robespierre, but of 
these Robespierre soon became the chief, for he represented 
more fully and consistently the spirit of the radical element. 

Louis' Trial and Execution. — Having deposed Louis, the 
Convention brought him to trial for his offenses. He was 
charged with conspiring with foreign enemies against France, 
with responsibility for the massacre of the Swiss Guards, and 
with seeking to overthrow the liberties of the people. These 
charges were said to be established by documents found in 
his possession, including his correspondence with so-called 
traitors. In the condition of the public mind it was a danger- 
ous thing to undertake his defense ; but three men were found 
who were brave enough to do so. Although the more moderate 
Girondists were in the majority, they were overawed by the 
Parisian mob, and the Jacobins carried things in their own Avay. 

At last the day was set for the voting. Three questions 
were to be settled in order. First, is Louis Capet guilty of 
conspiring against liberty ? Second, should the sentence in 
the Convention be final, or should there be an appeal ? Third, 
if the king is guilty, what punishment should be inflicted ? 
There was a large majority in favor of the verdict of guilty, 
and tliere were two to one against any appeal to the people, 
because an appeal at that time meant civil war, but the vote 



476 GENERAL HISTORY 

on the question of punishment was for a long time doubtfuL 
Some said banishment, others imprisonment till peace was 
restored, but those who wished his death were persistent and 
they terrified the others. Many of the Girondists were fright- 
ened into voting for the king's death, and this was decreed by 
a very small majority. Another vote declared that there 
should be no delay, and on January 21, 1793, the king was 
sent to the guillotine. He showed at the last moment a 
calmness and courage which did much to redeem his character 
in the eyes of the world. 

The First Coalition against France. — The death of Louis was 
the signal for the union of the chief powers in Europe against 
France. In the early years of the Revolution England was 
by no means disposed to take up arms on behalf of the French 
king, for the liberal party there was strongly in sympathy 
with the movement. But as France advanced stage by stage 
toward anarchy and violence, English opinion changed, and 
when the French went to the length of murdering their lawful 
sovereign, England was ready to take up arms against the 
Republic. During the next twenty years she was the strongest 
and most persistent foe of France. 

At the beginning of the war the Girondists were in control. 
Dumouriez belonged to their party, but he lost a battle at 
Neerwinden (March 18, 1793), and was driven out of Belgium, 
which quickly passed back again under Austrian control. 
Disgusted with the violence of the Revolution and with the 
growing strength of the Jacobins, he entered into a secret 
arrangement with the enemy, and tried to carry his army over 
to the side of the allies. The greater part of the army re- 
mained true to the Republic, but with a small force he deserted. 

Fall of the Girondists. — The treason of Dumouriez, since 
he was a Girondist, brought discredit upon that party. Its 
members were, moreover, disliked by the mob, while the 
Jacobins were constantly gaining strength ; for Paris was in 
no mood to submit to a moderate policy, and the Girondists 
were hated because of their opposition to some of the most 



FRANCE UNDER THE NATIONAL CONVENTION 477 

unwise and extreme measures proposed in the Convention. 
They were irresolute and inconsistent, and their course, both 
before and after the king's execution, was marked by timidity. 
The cry of " Down with the Girondists ! " was heard on all 
sides, and although they were in the majority in the Conven- 
tion, they soon became powerless, for the Convention was 
terrorized by the mob. 

In March, 1793, there was created the so-called Eevolution- 
ary Tribunal, an unregulated judicial process for the trial of 
all political offenses, and in the following month a still more 
important instrument of government was formed in the Com- 
mittee of Public Safety, to which were given over all the 
executive powers of the Convention. These two bodies soon 
gained the entire control of the government, and exercised the 
infamous tyranny which is characteristic of the worst stage 
of the Eevolution. The Jacobins controlled the Committee of 
Public Safety, which was supported in all its worst measures 
by the Commune of Paris. The law providing that the persons 
of members of the Convention should be inviolable was re- 
pealed, and the G-irondists were now in the power of the Jaco- 
bins. A great outbreak of the mob in the streets of Paris 
sealed the doom of the Girondists. Their leaders were seized 
and the entire party fell from power. 

Military Successes. — As soon as the control of the govern- 
ment passed into the hands of the Jacobins, there was a marked 
change in the character of the war. Carnot, the able war 
minister, showed himself a splendid organizer, and the armies 
were admirably officered and filled with enthusiasm. The 
allies, on the other hand, owing to mutual jealousies, were 
much weaker than they appeared to be. In the campaign that 
followed they proved their inefficiency. The French General 
Jourdan defeated the Austrians, and through the strategy of 
General Hoche, the allies were expelled from Alsace. 

The revolutionary government was equally successful in 
putting down internal strife. The city of Lyons, which was 
opposed to Jacobin control, was reduced, and the peasantry of 



478 



GENERAL HISTORY 



La A^endee, in spite of their bravery and early successes, ^ye^e 
defeated by Kleber. The city of Toulon, which had revolted 
and was relying on aid from the English and Spanish fleets, 
was captured by the troops of the Eepublic, their successes 
being chiefly due, it is said, to the military skill of a young 
artillery officer named Napoleon Bonaparte. It is certain that 
Bonaparte was present at the siege, but how far he contributed 
to the result is a matter of question with historians. 




^F.SSION OF A KeVOLUTIONARY COMMITTEE 



The Reign of Terror. — Now that the power of the Girondists 
was broken, and military successes had strengthened the revo- 
lutionary party in control, France entered upon that part of 
the Revolution known as the Eeign of Terror. The character- 
istic feature of the next few months was the wholesale murder 
of all persons suspected of hostility toward the Jacobin govern- 
ment or lukewarmness on its behalf. To be sure, the victims 
enjoyed the show of a judicial trial, but sentence was rendered 



FRANCE UNDER THE NATIONAL CONVENTION 479 




-»— ,^---1 ^ ^'^>-,r— — '^ ^ "" ~i 



The Guillotine 



without regard to justice or tlie facts of the case and execution 

followed quickly. The guillotine, named after its inventor, 

Dr. Guillotin, was a serviceable 

instrument for disposing quickly 

of the condemned, and hardly a 

day passed without seeing a score 

or more of suspected persons 

beheaded in tlie city of Paris 

alone. 

Charlotte Corday. — This series 
of judicial murders began when 
the Girondist prisoners were exe- 
cuted. Their death was hastened 
by the rash act of a young woman 
who was devoted to their cause 
and tried to save them. This was 
the famous Charlotte Corday, 

who thought that by killing the bloodthirsty Marat, she might 
deprive the Jacobins of their leader and encourage the friends 
of the Girondists to rise in their defense. Obtaining an in- 
terview with Marat under false pretenses, she stabbed him to 
the heart. Marat is represented as a monster of cruelty, re- 
pulsive in appearance and filthy in dress, and as having a 
thirst for human blood that amounted to actual madness. 
But getting rid of him did no good to the cause that Char- 
lotte Corday had at heart, for there were too many in sym- 
pathy with the violent policy of the Jacobins. Marat was rep- 
resented as a martyr, and Charlotte Corday was sent to the 
guillotine. Her defense of the deed was that she saw civil war 
approaching and thought to avert it by killing the man whom 
she considered to be the cause of all the calamities from which 
her country suffered. 

The murder of Marat hastened the execution of the Giron- 
dists. Their leaders, including some of the most eminent men 
in France, were hurried to the guillotine. An early victim of 
the guillotine was the ex-queen, Marie Antoinette, who, after 



480 GENERAL HISTORY 

being subjected to every kind of insult, was carried like an 
ordinary criminal in a common cart to the place of execution 
(Oct. 16, 1793). Thus the Reign of Terror had fairly begun. 
It spread throughout France and lasted for several months. 

Party Chiefs ; Robespierre. — Now that Marat was dead, the 
leaders of the Jacobin party were Robespierre, Danton, and 
Hebert. E/obespierre soon became the chief man in France ; 
for he was at the head of the Committee of Public Safety, and 
this was in control of the government. He was a man of one 
idea, and this was the establishment of the Republic on a basis 
of absolute equality. Having this one end in view, he never 
swerved from his purpose or showed the slightest hesitation. 
The means by which the object Avas to be attained was the 
wholesale execution of all who stood in his way. The very 
dullness and fanaticism of the man strengthened his hold on 
the people, for they could not doubt his sincerity of purpose. 

Danton. — Danton, on the other hand, was a man of real 
ability, an eloquent orator, and in some points a very shrewd 
politician. In the early stages of the Revolution he had shown 
himself as violent as the rest, but this was because he thought 
that harsh measures were necessary in a time of peril. As the 
Revolution advanced, he inclined to a more moderate policy and 
opposed the more radical and senseless measures. But for this 
very reason he was distrusted by the mob, who thought him 
lukewarm in the cause of the Revolution. 

Hebert. — The most detestable figure among the leaders of 
the Jacobins was Hebert. It was he who made foul charges 
against Marie Antoinette at her trial. He knew no mercy or 
reverence, and he was as indecent as he was cruel. 

Triumph of Robespierre. — These three leaders had each a 
considerable following. The Hebertists were at one extreme. 
They represented the worst element in the Commune, and 
were atheists and Communists. Danton and his followers 
were the most moderate of the three parties. Danton, it is 
said, would even have spared the lives of the Girondist 
prisoners. 



FRANCE UNDER THE NATIONAL CONVENTION 481 

Robespierre held a middle place. He distrusted Danton as 
hostile to the true spirit of the Republic, and on the other 
hand, being a believer in a Supreme Being, hated the atheism 
and immorality of the Hebertists. In these circumstances he 
formed with Danton a union for the overthrow of the party 
which both detested. Hebert and his followers were seized 
and hastily sent to the guillotine. The next to fall was 
Danton. His popularity was gone, but he did not seem to 
realize this, in spite of the warnings of his friends. Robes- 
pierre plotted against him and soon managed to secure his 
arrest and condemnation. Danton was executed April 5, 
1794. 

Robespierre in Control. — Now that Robespierre was at the 
head of the government, the Reign of Terror became worse 
than ever. There were massacres throughout France, and in 
Paris every day saw cart loads of victims carried to the guillo- 
tine. So common was the scene that people looked on as calmly 
as at a play. It is estimated that between April 16, 1793, and 
July 28, 1794, 2625 persons were guillotined in Paris. And 
what was done in Paris was repeated all over France. Thou- 
sands were killed at Nantes, Lyons, and Toulon; and, ac- 
cording to the estimate of Taine, nearly half a million were 
killed in the eight western departments. Ingenious forms of 
butchery were devised, such as the fusillades of Toulon, where 
a crowd of victims was repeatedly fired into by the troops until 
all were killed. At Nantes drowning was the favorite method 
of execution, the methods being termed by the government's 
agent Republican Baptisms and Republican Marriages. The 
former consisted in crowding a boat full of prisoners and sink- 
ing it in the river Loire. In the Republican Marriages, a man 
and a woman, after being bound together, were thrown into 
the water and drowned. 

Robespierre, true to his belief in a Supreme Being, abol- 
ished the worship of Reason, which had been established by 
the Republic, and caused the Convention to resolve that 
France believed in a Supreme Being and in the immor- 



482 



GENERAL HISTORY 



tality of the soul, a singular and shadowy religious faith, by 
no means agreeable to the great body of the people. 

Execution of Robespierre. — The cause of the end of the E-eign 
of Terror and the execution of Kobespierre was twofold. In 
the first place, the success of the French armies made the whole- 
sale murders seem not only bloodthirsty, but needless ; and in 
the second place, it was feared that Robespierre was aiming at 
a dictatorshii:). Plots were made against him, and even his 
own colleagues began planning his overthrow. His death was 
brought about by the revolution, or counter revolution, of Ther- 
midor (July, 1794). He was at this time planning to arrest 
some of his enemies in the Convention, but a member ventured 
to arise and accuse him. The example once set was followed 
by others, and soon the tyrant was under arrest. The people 
rose and rescued him, but in vain. He was retaken and sent 
to the guillotine July 28, 1794. 

End of the Reign of Terror. — This marks the beginning of the 
reaction as^ainst the excesses of the Revolution. The radical 
clubs, such as the Jacobins, were now 
closed. The prison doors were thrown 
open, and those who had been confined 
merely on suspicion were released. 
The Girondists came back to their 
seats in the Convention, and the Jaco- 
bins were soon a despised and hunted 
class. France now proceeded, by 
gradual steps, away from the work of 
the Revolution until she reached a des- 
potism under the government of Na- 
poleon. The Revolutionary Tribunal 
and the Committee of Public Safety 
were swept away; the Commune was 
kept under control and peace reigned 
in the capital. The reaction showed 
itself in the renewal of social entertainments and the display 
of wealth, which had largely changed hands. A kind of fever 




A Fhench Danj 



FRANCE UNDER THE NATIONAL CONVENTION 483 

of frivolity seized the leisure classes, as if they wished to 
make up for lost tiuie. The so-called patriots, marking the 
return of luxury and display, complained that France had 
merely exchanged an aristocracy of birth for an aristocracy of 
wealth. 

The Victories of France. — Everywhere the armies of France 
were victorious. Holland was conquered and formed into the 
Batavian Republic, dependent upon France. The western 
provinces, where the revolt of La Vendee had broken out, were 
pacified, and the English, who, with the emigrants, had tried 
to effect a landing on the coast, were defeated. Finally the 
coalition against France was broken. Spain made peace with 
her, ceding the island of Santo Domingo. 

Repulse of the Mob. — The people of Paris did not let the 
moderate party triumph without a struggle. The popular 
discontent was increased by the scarcity of the times, and 
twice the mob rose against the Convention with the cry of 
" Bread and the Constitution of 1793 ! " Nevertheless, the 
Convention continued its attempts to give France a more 
stable government. It prepared a new constitution, show- 
ing a more conservative spirit, and submitted it to the peo- 
ple. 

In France generally it was well received, but in Paris the 
old revolutionary spirit broke out anew. In October, 1795, 
the mob, some 40,000 strong, attacked the Convention. 
Its defense had been intrusted to the young artillery officer, 
Napoleon Bonaparte, who had distinguished himself at Toulon. 
This was the last trial of strength between the party of order 
and the Parisian populace. Napoleon's promptness and vigor 
won the day. He raked the streets with a steady artillery fire, 
and the mob withdrew in confusion. Thus the Convention 
was saved and the party of order was firmly intrenched in 
power. Now, the danger to France was not so much from the 
rising of the people as it was from the parties plotting some 
form of despotism. In the brief interval between July 28, 
1794, and October 5, 1795, the country had passed from the 



484 GENERAL HISTORY 

government of most violent Jacobins to a condition in which 
it was actually in danger from a combination of royalists and 
men of anti-republican tendencies. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

France under the National Convention. — Formation of the Repub- 
lic : Louis Deposed. — His Trial and Execution. — The First Coali- 
tion against France : The Battle of Neerwinden. — Fall of the 
Girondists : The Revolutionary Tribunal. The Committee of Public 
Safety. — Military Successes : Carnot. Jourdan. Hoche. The Re- 
duction of La Vendue. — The Reign of Terror: The Guillotine. — 
Charlotte Corday : Her Assassination of Marat. Her Execution. 
The Execution of Marie Antoinette. — Party Chiefs; Robespierre. 
Danton. Hubert. — Triumph of Robespierre : The Overthrow of 
the H^bertists. The Overthrow of the Dantonists. — Robespierre in 
Control : The Activity of the Guillotine. Judicial Murders at Nantes, 
Lyons, and Toulon. — Execution of Robespierre. — End of the Reign 
of Terror. — The Victories of France. — Repulse of the Mob : Napo- 
leon Bonaparte. 



CHAPTER LXV 

FRANCE UNDER THE DIRECTORY 

(October 27, 1795-Noveniber 9, 1799) 

The New Constitution. — This gave France a very different 
form of government from tliat set up in 1793. The executive 
power was intrusted to a party of five directors, and there 
were two branches of the Legislature, first, the lower house, or 
Council of 500 ; second, the Council of the Ancients, having a 
membership of 250 persons, all of whom were required to be 
at least fifty years of age. Each director acted in turn as 
President. 

The Italian Campaign ; Rise of Napoleon. — In the period that 
followed the establishment of the Directory, France took the 
aggressive in war and was brilliantly successful. The first 



FRANCE UNDER THE DIRECTORY 485 

great campaign was that against the Austrian power in Italy. 
In this war Napoleon won his reputation as the greatest mili- 
tary genius of the time. Driving the Austrians before him 
along different lines of retreat, he was soon in possession of the 
plains of Piedmont. He then entered Lombardy and defeated 
the enemy in the decisive battle of Lodi (May, 1796), where he 
gave a remarkable proof of his personal courage by charging 
at the head of his troops in the midst of a terrific artillery 
fire, across the stone bridge that spanned the Adda at tliat 
point. Then in a series of remarkable battles he defeated 
the old Austrian general, Wurmser, and finally destroyed an 
entire force of cavalry sent against him. In less than a year 
he had crushed three armies, each superior to his own, had 
crossed the Alps, invaded Austria, and dictated the terms of 
peace. 

While all this was going on, the other armies of France 
who were engaged in Germany failed to accomplish anything. 
This contrast served to make the fame of Napoleon all the 
greater. He was now started on the course which was to end 
in his being the emperor of France and the controller for a 
time of the destinies of Europe. 

Early Life of Napoleon. — Napoleon at this time Avas only 
twenty-seven years of age. He was born in the island of 
Corsica in 1769, of a poor but noble family. He was sent as a 
lad to the military school of Brienne and became afterwards an 
ensign in the French army. In his boyhood and youth he gave 
signs of genius, bat showed from the first a lack of scruple 
and a spirit of self-seeking, which became the marked traits of 
his mature years. Always plotting for the interest of himself 
and his family and cherishing an ambition for power, he made 
use of every chance that presented itself. 

His Military Ambition. — At first his ambition took no defi- 
nite form. He seemed to have but little attachment for mili- 
tary life and made one or two ventures in literature and 
history. His success in Italy, however, opened his eyes to 
what he called his destiny. At first he was a Jacobin, or at 
Colby's GEX. hist. — 31 



486 GENERAL HISTORY 

least professed to be so, but even before the Italian campaign 
he was keen enough to see that the Jacobin misrule could not 
endure. He knew, too, that France was certain to encounter 
some vigorous attacks from without and that the royalists 
would do their best to bring the Bourbons back to power. To 
meet this danger, it was necessary to vest the whole military 
command in one man. Napoleon saw this, and determined to 
be that man. In Italy he had no idea of forcing republicanism 
upon the different states, and he surprised his troops by refus- 
ing to change Sardinia into a republic. 

Treaty of Campo Formio. — The Austrians had not come to 
terms until Napoleon marched his army across the Alps and 
approached within sight of Vienna. Preliminaries of peace 
were then agreed to, and later the Treaty of Campo Formio 
was signed October 17, 1797. By this the Austrian Nether- 
lands (the modern Belgium) were given to the French Eepub- 
lic. Important lands to the west of the Rhine also became 
French and the northern part of Italy was formed into a 
republic under the name of Cisalpine Republic. Venice was 
given up to Austria. 

Weakness of the Directory. — The government at home was 
daily growing weaker on account of the anti-republican and 
royalist opposition. For a time there was some show of vigor 
on the part of the Directory, but on the whole there was a 
desire among the people for a firmer authority at the head of 
affairs. The great successes of the years 1796 and 1797 had 
seemed to be in spite of the Directory rather than on account 
of it, and the people attributed everything to the genius of 
Napoleon alone. The directors observed this, and when Napo- 
leon returned to France amid the applause of the people, they 
felt that their security was endangered by his fame and power. 

The Campaign in Egypt (i 798-1 799). — In their uneasiness 
at the presence of the popular young general, the Directory 
planned a campaign which would take him out of the country. 
At first there was a design to attack England, but at Napo- 
leon's suggestion this plan was changed to the campaign into 



FRANCE UNDER THE DIRECTORY 



487 



Egypt. The object of this was not only to conquer Egypt, but 
to penetrate into the East, and to acquire an empire which 
should stand between England and her Indian possessions. 

In Napoleon's mind there was a vision of Oriental conquests 
and the possibility of winning for himself an empire like 
Alexander's. His army was conveyed in safety across the 
Mediterranean, managing to escape the English fleet. On his 
way over he captured the island of Malta. Landing in 
Egypt, he attacked Alexandria and advancing on Cairo fought 
the ' Battle of the Pyramids,' in which he overthrew the Mame- 







A Marriage under the Eepublic 



lukes, the Egyptian cavalry. This placed Cairo in his hands, 
but soon afterwards he suffered a reverse in the ^ Battle of the 
Nile ' in Aboukir Bay, where Nelson destroyed the French fleet. 
Nevertheless, Napoleon completed his conquest in Egypt and 
led an expedition into Syria. After some success he was 
checked at Acre by the valiant resistance offered by the Eng- 
lish commander. Sir Sidney Smith. This ended his attempt 
at Oriental conquest. While before Acre he had received 



488 GENERAL HISTORY 

news of important happenings at home, and he hastened back 
to Egypt, whence, after placing General Kleber in command, 
he returned to France. 

The French and the Directory. — In 1798 the French armies 
had been successful. Three new republics were set up. The 
Roman or Tiberine Republic, the Swiss or Helvetic Republic, 
and the Parthenopaean Republic, established on the ruins 
of the kingdom of Naples. These successes did not serve, 
however, to prolong the life of the Directory ; for though it 
had the energy to gain territories, it did not have the power to 
retain them. A few sharp blows drove the French out of Italy, 
and the newly formed republics soon toppled over. The gov- 
ernment in France was unsatisfactory to every class of society. 
Some feared the renewal of the Reig.i of Terror, and others the 
restoration of the old monarchy. The Abbe Sieyes, one of the 
shrewdest politicians of the time, said, " We must have a chief." 

Overthrow of the Directory. — Napoleon returned just at the 
time when the feeling against the Directory was at its lieight. 
A plan was formed to overthrow the government and some of 
the directors themselves were concerned in the plot, though 
Napoleon and Sieyes were the chief conspirators. The Legis- 
lature was dissolved, and France, being left without a govern- 
ment, Avas obliged to form a new one. The country as a whole 
was on the side of Napoleon in this matter, for the Directory 
was regarded with distrust. This act of violence was there- 
fore no " assassination of liberty," but was the act of men who 
were shrewd enough to see what the people wanted. 

The overthrow of the Directory was accomplished without 
shedding a drop of blood, and was received with almost uni- 
versal approval. A new constitution was now adopted, but 
the government established in accordance with it left the real 
power in the hands of a single man, and this man was Napo- 
leon, who for many years controlled the policy of the state. 
Thus the Revolution liad in the course of ten years resulted in 
establishing in France a monarchy no less absolute than that 
which had been overthrown. 



FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEON 



489 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

France under the Directory. —The New Constitution. — The Italian 
Campaign ; Rise of Napoleon : The Battle of Lodi. The Defeat of 
Wurmser. — Early Life of Napoleon. — His Military Ambition. — 
Treaty of Campo Formio. — Weakness of the Directory : Napoleon's 
Return. —The Campaign in Egypt: The Battle of the Pyramids. 
The Battle of the Nile. Repulse at Acre. — The French and the 
Directory : The Formation of the Republics. Their Overthrow. — 
Overthrow of the Directory : Napoleon and Siey^s. 



CHAPTER LXVI 



.& 



FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEON 

The Consulate. — The form of government established after 
the overthrow of the Directory Avas 
peculiar. Eepublican forms w^ere re- 
tained, but all the power was in the 
hands of the Tirst Consul, and the man 
chosen to fill this office w^as Napoleon. 
He had two colleagues, each of whom 
was called Consul and enjoyed an ap- : 
pearance of authority, but from the 
first Napoleon as First Consul exercised 
all the powers of the state. He alone 
could promulgate the la^vs, and although 
there were a Tribunate, a Legislative 
Body, and a Senate, tJie men chosen as 
members of these bodies were Napo- 
leon's friends. This constitution was 
submitted to the people and apx^roved 
by a large majority. 

Soon after the new constitution went 
into operation, it was clear to everybody that, while nomi- 
nally the government was republican, it was in reality a mon- 




Napoleon 



490 GENERAL HISTORY 

archy. The National Guard, so often a dangerous instrument 
during the Revolution, now became a mere appendage of the 
regular army. Napoleon, in fact, undid much of the work of 
the Revolution. For instance, he regained the good will of the 
Church by an agreement with the Holy See. The Roman 
Catholic Church was supported and favored by the state. This 
removed one great cause of discontent. Another change of 
importance introduced by Napoleon was the creation of a new 
aristocracy. Men who had gained distinction in any depart- 
ment of life were enrolled in the so-called Legion of Honor, 
which exists to this day. Besides this, Napoleon created a 
new nobility, restoring many ancient titles ; and, although this 
nobility was rather a poor affair, it had the effect of attaching 
the upper classes to him. 

Campaign of Marengo. — In the year 1<S00 England and Aus- 
tria still remained in the field against France, but the chief 
opponent now, as formerly, was Austria. Napoleon, therefore, 
attacked her first. One army was threatening Alsace from the 
west of Bavaria. The other was trying to get back the lost 
provinces of Italy. Napoleon, accordingly, got together an army 
superior to the Bavarian division and placed it under Moreau, 
while he secretly gathered another force to attack Italy. The 
Austrians did not suspect that his second force was being gath- 
ered, and had advanced to Genoa and Nice, when suddenly 
Napoleon appeared to the east of them and cut off their retreat. 

Moreau, in the meanwhile, had been successful in Bavaria 
and sent reinforcements to Napoleon. Napoleon had been so 
successful in keeping his movements secret that the Austrian 
general, Melas, did not learn of Napoleon's passage across the 
Alps until May 21, hardly more than three weeks before the bat- 
tle of Marengo ; and within a few days of that battle the 
French troops captured dispatches to the Austrian general, stat- 
ing that the report that Napoleon had been gathering a force 
for this purpose was a mere myth. 

When it was evident that Napoleon was in Italy at the 
head of an army, the Austrian general turned and attacked 



FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEON 491 

him at Marengo, June 14, 1800. It was a doubtful battle at 
first. In fact, it seemed as if the Austrians were sure of suc- 
cess, for they destroyed the greater part of the French cavalry 
and captured most of their cannon. Nevertheless, the arrival 
of reinforcements at the right moment gave the French fresh 
courage ; and the genius of Napoleon in a few hours turned 
the defeat into a victory which gave him at once the greater 
part of northern Italy. He had cut off in advance the Aus- 
trians' retreat, and thus this one battle obliged his enemy to 
come to terms. In December of the same year (1800), Moreau 
won the great battle of Hohenlinden. So in a single year 
Napoleon retrieved all the disasters which had disgraced the 
rule of the Directory. 

Treaty of Luneville. — Belgium was again ceded to France, 
and the Rhine was acknowledged as her eastern boundary. 
As a result of this war, France really became the dominant 
power over half the continent, and England was the only great 
state that still held out against her. But England had been 
as successful on sea as France had been on land. She had 
swept the French fleets from the ocean, taken many French 
colonies, and forced the army in Egypt to capitulate, thus 
destroying French power there forever. These successes had 
been gained for England under the administration of her great 
statesman, Pitt, but his party was now overthrown, and the 
party opposed to the war gained control of the government. 
In 1802 England signed a peace with France at Amiens, restor- 
ing to the French some of the British conquests. 

Internal Affairs. — In the brief interval of peace that now fol- 
lowed, Napoleon had a chance to give his attention to internal 
affairs, and his activity in works of peace was fully equal to 
his energy as a military leader. He built bridges, roads, and 
canals, and greatly improved the means of transportation in 
the interior. He beautified Paris and other cities of France 
with fine buildings. He encouraged literature, art, and science, 
founded schools and colleges, and endowed libraries and 
museums. 



492 GENERAL HISTORY 

More important than these improvements was his codifica- 
tion of the law. The Code Napoleon embodied the best results 
of the Revolution. It did away with the inequality of citizens 
before the law, and abolished the old and unjust regulations 
that had been an inheritance from the feudal system. The 
best proof of the excellence of this code is the fact that it 
has been imitated in some of the most advanced countries of 
Europe. 

Napoleon made Consul for Life and Emperor. — In 1802 the 
French people declared Napoleon consul for life, with the 
right to name his successor. But since he had in reality 
the power of a king or emperor, there appeared no valid rea- 
son why he should not have the title. Moreover, the people 
were disposed to increase his power by the fact that several 
plots were made against his life. In 1801 an infernal machine 
was exploded near his carriage, and he barely escaped death, 
and after he became consul for life another plot was formed 
against him by the royalists. Napoleon's anger at these plots 
betrayed him into a serious blunder. This was the arrest of 
the young Duke d'Enghien in Baden, who was in reality inno- 
cent of taking any part in the plot against the emperor's life. 
He was hurried into France, and after a summary court-martial 
was executed. It was an act of gross injustice, and, as one of 
Napoleon's ministers said, '^ It was worse than a crime : it was 
a blunder." 

In 1804 Napoleon was declared emperor, and was crowned 
on December 2 in the cathedral of Notre Dame, the pope 
taking part in the ceremonies. 

Renewal of War. — By the terms of the Peace of Amiens Eng- 
land agreed to give up Malta to France, but with the understand- 
ing that the latter country should make no more continental 
conquests. Nevertheless, Napoleon continued to interfere in 
the affairs of other states. Genoa was incorporated with 
France, and Napoleon became the arbiter of European affairs 
from the Baltic to the Mediterranean. The aggressions of 
France were there regarded as a violation of the treaty, and 



FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEON 



493 



England refused to give up Malta. France accused her of vio- 
lating her promise, and war was renewed in May, 1803, Eng- 
land having won to her side Austria, Sweden, and Russia. 

Battle of Trafalgar (1805). — During the early part of the 
Napoleonic wars, England's successes were gained by her 
superior navy under the command of the most brilliant naval 
officer of the time, Lord Nelson. 
Nelson's last victory was won 
near Cape Trafalgar, off the coast 
of Spain, where he met the com- 
bined fleets of France and Spain. 
It was on the eve of this engage- 
ment that he sent to the vessels 
of the fleet the famous message, 
"England expects every man to 
do his duty." Most of the ene- 
mies' ships were captured or 
sunk, and the victory gave Eng- 
land the control of the sea, but 
cost the life of her brave com- 
mander, who fell at the moment 
of victory. 

Battles of Ulm and Austerlitz. — 
Napoleon raised a large force for 
the purpose of invading England, 

but found no means of crossing the channel, on account of the 
failure of his fleet to return at the proper time. He sud- 
denly marched eastward across the Ivhine, and threatening 
the Austrians in the rear, forced them to surrender at Ulm 
(October 17, 1805). Thirty thousand men became his prison- 
ers without his striking a blow. After this success he lost no 
time, but marched to Vienna, which he occupied in less than a 
month after the surrender at Ulm. Now passing on to the field 
of Austerlitz, he encountered the combined armies of Austria 
and Russid (December 2, 1805). Here his victory was com- 
plete, and it is a good illustration. of his military genius that 







Trafalgar Monument 
(London) 



494 GENERAL HISTORY 

he was so sure of the success of his plans that on the eve of 
the battle he issued a proclamation in which he foretold almost 
exactly the means by which the victory was won. 

Europe after Austerlitz. — This battle made Napoleon master 
of Europe. Austria gave up Venetia, which became a part of 
a new Italian kingdom, with Napoleon at the head. The king- 
dom of Naples was taken from the Bourbons, and Napoleon's 
brother Joseph was placed on its throne. Sixteen states of 
Germany, including Bavaria, Wtirttemberg, and Baden, formed 
themselves into a so-called Confederation of the Rhine, ac- 
knowledging Napoleon as their protector. The Emperor Fi-an- 
cis 11. gave up the crown of the Holy Eoman Empire (Germany), 
which was thus formally dissolved, and he was thenceforth 
merely emperor of Austria under the title of Francis I. 

Humiliation of Prussia. — Prussia had played a very small 
part in the resistance to Napoleon, but the insults and aggres- 
sions of the French finally drove the Prussian king, Frederick 
William III., to take up arms against them. Prussia's mili- 
tary organization was defective, and her generals were incapa- 
ble. The French carried everything before them. In the two 
battles of Jena and Auerstadt, which were fought on the same 
day (October 14, 1806), the armies of Frederick William were 
routed, and in two weeks Napoleon entered the Prussian 
capital, Berlin, in triumph. Prussia was thoroughly beaten. 
In token of his conquest, Napoleon carried trophies back to 
Paris from the picture galleries and museums of Berlin, 

Peace of Tilsit (1807). — The only formidable opponent left 
on the continent Avas Russia, and the French army was now 
led against her. A bloody but indecisive battle was fought at 
Eylau (February, 1807), but a little later Napoleon completely 
routed the Russian general in the battle of Friedland (June 14, 
1807), after which the czar was willing to make terms. Na- 
poleon and the Czar Alexander met on a raft in the river 
Niemen in 1807, and formed the famous Peace of Tilsit. 
Napoleon wished to obtain the friendship of the czar, and the 
gains to France by the treaty were at the expense of other 



FKANCK UNDER NAPOLEON 495 

powers than Russia. Alexander appears to have been com- 
pletely fascinated by the French emperor, and he readily 
consented to Napoleon's terms. 

The worst sufferer by the treaty was Prussia. Half of 
her territory was taken from her and formed into a new 
state under the name of the Kingdom of Westphalia, where 
Napoleon's brother Jerome was placed on the throne. This 
became a part of the Confederation of the Rhine and thus was 
under the control of Napoleon. Prussia, moreover, was obliged 
to limit her army to 42,000 men and to close her ports to 
British trade. The portion of Poland which she had gained 
was taken from her and formed into the Duchy of Warsaw 
under the Saxon king. Prussia was thus dismembered, and 
what remained of her former territory was wholly under the 
control of the French. 

Another brother of Napoleon's, Louis Bonaparte, was recog- 
nized as king of Holland, and Alexander further agreed to 
join France against England in case the latter power refused 
to accept the terms of peace. 

The Continental System. — Napoleon's power was now at its 
height. All Europe was at his feet and England alone was in 
a position to defy his supremacy. But there were certain ele- 
ments of weakness in his empire. He showed too little regard 
for the spirit of nationality in other states, and while he 
knocked kings and princes about at will, he did not reckon 
with the people. 

He committed another blunder in his attempt to close the 
ports of Europe to British commerce. This was the so-called 
Continental System, a policy begun in 1806. Napoleon's Ber- 
lin Decree of November 21, 1806, declared the British Isles to 
be in a state of blockade. Retaliatory measures were taken by 
Great Britain in the Orders in Council (1807). The ports of 
France and her allies were declared to be in a state of block- 
ade. Then followed Napoleon's Milan Decree (Dec. 17, 1807), 
which proclaimed that all vessels which touched at British 
ports were liable to capture. His object was to injure England, 



496 GENERAL HISTORY 

but as the European countries were dependent upon England 
for many necessities of life, it caused great suffering to his allies. 
Moreover, so long as England remained mistress of the seas, 
the continental system could not seriously injure her. At all 
events, it injured her far less than the countries upon whom it 
was enforced, and the latter soon became dissatisfied with Na- 
poleon's policy. But the most serious blow to the emperor's 
supremacy in Europe came from Spain, where he thought his 
power was secure. 

Beginning of the Peninsular Wars. — Spain had been forced 
into an alliance with France in 1803, and had suffered much in 
consequence. Godoy', the favorite of the queen, was at that 
time the power behind the throne, and with him Napoleon 
entered into an agreement for the purpose of subduing Portu- 
gal, which, if the plan succeeded, was to be given to Godoy as a 
principality. Ferdinand, the son of the weak king of Spain, 
Charles IV., began a plot against Godoy, and Napoleon pre- 
tended to be the friend of Ferdinand. At the same time, how- 
ever, he was receiving letters from the king of Spain declaring 
that Ferdinand was trying to dethrone him. Napoleon made 
use of these intrigues by playing off one party against the 
other, and having, under false pretenses, secured the abdica- 
tion of both the king and Ferdinand, seized the crown of Spain 
and gave it to his brother Joseph. 

This insult struck the pride of the Spanish people, who rose 
against the intruder, and called in the aid of England. The 
French gained possession of the capital, but later, at Baylen, 
their general Dupont was surrounded by the Spanish forces and 
forced to surrender his army (July, 1808). Soon afterwards 
the usurper, .Joseph, was driven from Madrid. In the mean- 
while the English had landed in Portugal under Wellesley, 
afterwards the Duke of Wellington, and driven the French from 
the country. These successes on the part of the Spanish Avere 
not lasting, but had an important effect ; for the other states 
of Europe were encouraged to revolt against the tyranny of 
Napoleon. 



FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEON 497 

Wagram (1809). — Austria, which had suffered so much at the 
hands of Napoleon, was the first of the continental states to 
revolt against him. The campaign Avas closed by the battles 
of Eckmlihl and Wagram. In each Napoleon was completely 
successful. For the second time the French entered the Aus- 
trian capital in triumph, and the conquered state was obliged 
to make further cessions of territory and to join the continental 
system. 

Other Aggressions of Napoleon. — In 1809 the Papal States 
were joined to the French Empire on account of the pope's 
refusal to close his ports against England. Soon afterwards 
Holland was united with France on account of the opposition 
of Napoleon's brother, Louis, who was king of that country, to 
the continental system. Sweden became the ally of France by 
choosing one of Napoleon's marshals, Bernadottc, as their 
crown prince. Some historians regard the years following 
these events, 1810-1811, as marking the summit of Napoleon's 
power; for his empire included, besides France proper, Holland, 
Belgium, the western part of Italy as far as Naples, and north- 
western Germany. The rest of western and central Europe 
was composed of states which were dependent upon him. Still 
the decay of the empire had already begun and his power 
was more apparent than real. 

Affairs in Spain. — When Joseph Bonaparte was driven from 
Spain, Napoleon set to work in person to repair the damage. 
He entered Spain in November, 1808, and before the end of 
the year had made his way to the capital. Despite the brave 
resistance of the English general, Sir John Moore, and his 
forces, the vastly superior French force was successful, and 
Napoleon restored his brother to the throne. He then returned 
to France in order to deal with Austria, and the result of his 
war with that power has just been narrated. 

Siege of Saragossa. — ^The Spaniards, though defeated, were 
by no means subdued. The spirit of their revolt is illustrated 
by the famous defense of the city of Saragossa. This place was 
besieged by the French, and its inhabitants were reduced to 



498 GENERAL HISTORY 

extremes of v/ant, but still held out. In January, 1809, an 
attack was made by the besiegers, and, after some days, they 
broke into the city. Apparently, and according to the usual 
experience of war, the city was in their hands, but, as a matter 
of fact, the real fighting was only now begun. Every street 
and every house became a little fortification. Gallows were 
set in the center of the town, and every one who hesitated to 
meet the enemy was hanged. For twenty days the French 
were forced to storm the city house by house, aud not till a 
fourth part of the dwellings had been taken in this manner did 
the inhabitants admit the hopelessness of resistance and sur- 
render. It is said that 30,000 people perished before the town 
capitulated. 

French Reverses; Wellington.^ The French successes in 
Spain were soon counterbalanced by the genius of Wellington. 
With infinite care he selected and fortified a position in Portu- 
gal, called Torres Vedras ; for he foresaw that the French would 
invade the country. Napoleon made a fatal mistake in leaving 
Spain to be reduced by his generals, who, -in the long run, 
showed themselves quite unable to cope wdth the skill of Wel- 
lington. The French invaders entered Portugal under the lead 
of their general. Masse 'na. They had not known of the exist- 
ence of the fortification of Torres Vedras, and their attempt to 
capture it was a complete failure. They now had to retreat 
through a country which had been swept bare of all provisions, 
and, though they managed to escape by the following spring, 
their loss exceeded 30,000 men. 

Loss of Spain. — Then followed a series of victories on the 
part of the Spaniards and English, and, at the very moment 
that Napoleon Avas preparing to march into Kussia, Wellington 
was on the point of gaining another victory over the weakened 
armies of the French. In midsummer, 1812, King Joseph fled 
from Madrid. Thus Spain was lost forever to jSTapoleon. 

The Russian Campaign (1812). — The czar grew tired of the 
continental system and rejected the alliance Avith France. This 
combined with other causes to brin.^r about a w^ar between the 



FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEON 499 

emperor and the czar. Napoleon gathered an enormous army 
for the invasion. Never before had the boundaries of Eussia 
been passed by such a formidable host. Over half a million 
men were collected for the expedition, but some were massed 
on the borders, and only about 300,000 advanced into the 
interior of Russia. All the vassal states of France sent con- 
tingents to swell this vast army, and a comparatively small 
fraction of it consisted of French troops. The Russians still 
speak of it as the ^' army of twenty nations." 

Burning of Moscow. — The Russians did not venture a battle 
at first, but finally tried to check the invaders at Borodino. 
Again Napoleon's military skill won the day, but at the cost 
of an enormous loss of life. The Russians henceforth avoided 
an engagement, thinking that the severity of the climate and 
the scarcity of provisions would do more for them than an 
open fight. Napoleon advanced toward Moscow, where he 
expected to find supplies for his army. To his surprise he 
found the city deserted, and almost immediately on the arrival 
of the French it was set on fire. He now had to retreat with« 
out sufficient supplies across a cold and barren country. The 
sufferings of his troops were intense. It is said that of the 
300,000 men who invaded Russia only 100,000 started on 
the return journey from Moscow, and only 20,000 reached 
the frontier. 

Effects of the Expedition. — The effect of this disaster was to 
encourage and consolidate the enemies of Napoleon for one 
great attack. At first the peo^^le of Europe had looked to 
Napoleon as a deliverer from the despotism of their sovereigns, 
thinking that he represented the spirit of the Revolution and 
meant to bring universal freedom to the world. They were now 
undeceived ; for they saw that he aimed, not at bringing to the 
world universal liberty, but at founding a universal monarchy. 

The War of Liberation. — The harsh measures of Napoleon 
toward Prussia made both king and people ready for revenge 
as soon as the opportunity offered. The failure of the Russian 
campaign encouraged them to make a fight for liberty, and a 



500 GENERAL HISTORY 

great wave of patriotism swept over Prussia as well as tlie 
other states of nortliern Germany. Prussia entered into an 
alliance with Russia, and these powers were soon joined by 
Sweden and England. 

Napoleon on his return to France put forth all his efforts to 
raise a fresh army, but the country was exhausted, and though 
he succeeded in raising a numerous force, the army was not to 
be compared with those splendid veteran troops which he had 
formerly led to victory. Nevertheless, in his first conflicts 
with the allies he was successful. 

Battle of Leipzig (1813). — In May, 1813, he defeated them in 
two battles, and it seemed for the moment as if peace might be 
made on terms favorable to the Prench, but at this time there 
came the news that Wellington had defeated a force in Spain 
at the battle of Vittoria, and the war went on. Napoleon 
gained another victory at Dresden, but this was his last suc- 
cess. The allies, united in one great army, forced him to fight 
at Leipzig. They outnumbered hiu] nearly two to one, and 
after three days' fighting, the ' Battle of the Nations,' as it was 
called, ended with the overthrow of the French. This battle 
really decided the fate of Napoleon. 

Abdication of Napoleon. — On March 31, 1814, the allies cap- 
tured Paris, and on April 11 Napoleon formally abdicated. 
He was banished to the island of Elba on April 30. The 
Bourbons were recalled upon promising to grant a constitu- 
tional government, but the restored monarch, Louis XVIII. , 
showed something of the old Bourbon spirit. He refused 
to ratify the constitution drafted by the Senate, and drafted 
one of his own on the principle that constitutions ema- 
nated from the king and not from the subjects. But though 
it was fairly liberal, and proclaimed the equality of all citi- 
zens before the law, it was not satisfactory to the people. 
Still, if it had been faithfully observed, the Bourbons might 
have retained their power. Louis, however, violated it ; the 
people were indignant, and Napoleon, returning from the island 
of Elba, found that the tide had turned in his favor. 



FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEON 501 

Return of Napoleon. — As soon as the allies had conquered 
France m 1814, representatives of all the great powers met at 
the Congress of Vienna in order to restore the map of Europe 
as it had been before the Napoleonic wars. But there was no 
harmony among them, and the conflicting schemes of Russia 
and Prussia prevented their reaching any decision. 

While their bickerings were going on, the news came that 
Napoleon had returned, and another alliance was formed against 
him, Napoleon was received with rejoicing in France, and the 
Bourbon king w^as driven from the throne. Napoleon prom- 
ised to rule as a constitutional monarch, but he had lost his 
hold on the loyalty of the people and was by no means so sure 
of support as he had been in the past. Nevertheless, he 
gathered a large force and prepared to advance against the 
armies of the allies without waiting for their attack. He 
hoped to strike the armies of the English under Wellington, 
and the Prussians under Blticher, before they had a chance 
to unite, and, marching into Belgium, he first encountered 
Blticher, whom he defeated at Ligny, June 16, 1815. At 
Quatre Bras on the same day Wellington successfully resisted 
the attack of Napoleon's general, Ney. 

Waterloo. — Napoleon now thought that he could strike a 
blow at the English before the Prussians had a chance to come 
to their aid, and he pressed on to the lield of Waterloo. On 
June 18 he attacked the British forces, and at first gained 
some slight success, but when he tried to dislodge them from 
the field by repeated charges, he found that it was impossible 
to penetrate the squares of the British infantry. The delay 
caused by this brought about his ruin. The Prussians had 
time to come up to attack his right wing. As a last resort he 
ordered a charge of the Imperial Guard on the English forces, 
but again his attack failed, and as his troops were returning 
the Prussians attacked them on the right flank, and scattered 
them in all directions. A few days after the battle of Water- 
loo, Nax^oleon again abdicated. Finding escape from France 
impossible, he surrendered to the British, and was carried by 

COLBY'S GEN. HIST. — 32 



502 GENERAL HISTORY 

them to the island of St. Helena, where he remained a captive 
until his death on May 5, 1821. 

Results of Napoleon's Career. — This closed the wonderful 
career of a man who had done more in the course of a brief 
life to change the course of history than any other European 
sovereign. His work was a mixture of good and evil. In the 
first part of his career the good predominated; in the latter 
part he was swayed by selfish motives and committed many 
blunders. By grasping at too much he lost what he had. He 
gave France a good government so far as internal affairs were 
concerned, and preserved for her many of the best fruits of the 
Revolution. Further, he taught Europe some valuable lessons. 
He showed the weakness of the old system of government, 
and in the countries where French influence was paramount 
there was an advance in civilization. The speedy collapse of 
the German state under his blows proved the need of a more 
centralized government. Up to his time Germany was a mere 
federation of over 300 loosely joined states. It was his policy 
to deprive petty princes of their power and consolidate their 
states in the Confederation of the Rhine under his rule. The 
example of such a union was not forgotten, and Germany never 
returned to her former condition. 

The Congress of Vienna. — The renewal of the war had a good 
effect on the powers represented at the Congress of A^ienna ; 
for it made them see the necessity of coming to some agree- 
ment about European affairs. Eight powers signed the decrees 
of the Congress ; viz. Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, 
Russia, Spain, Portugal, and Sweden. There were two objects 
which the Congress had in view : first, the restoration of the 
political map of Europe ; second, the establishment of a new 
system in Germany. The decisions of this Congress ruled 
Europe over forty years. 

Saxony and Poland. — Among the chief difficulties that they 
had to overcome were the Saxon and Polish questions. The 
emperor, Alexander I., of Russia demanded that the duchy of 
Warsaw, which was all that remained of Poland, should be 



FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEON 503 

given to him. Frederick William III. of Prussia demanded 
that Saxony should be incorporated in his dominions. There 
was much wrangling on these points, but finally these powers 
received almost all that they asked. Prussia got back a part 
of Saxony and some Polish territory (now Posen) and her 
provinces on the Rhine, and Russia gained the greater part of 
the duchy of Warsaw, which was formed into the kingdom of 
Poland with the Russian czar at its head. 

Other States. — England had, as a result of the war, added 
greatly to her colonial possessions. Norway, which had long 
belonged to Denmark, was united to Sweden. In Italy the 
king of Sardinia got the republic of Genoa, but, in general, 
the different states of Italy were given to members of the 
Austrian house. In the south, however, the kingdom of Na- 
ples was bestowed upon the Spanish Bourbon, Ferdinand IV. 
Thus Italy was left without any unity whatever, except for 
the fact that most of its rulers belonged to the Austrian house. 
The number of the Swiss cantons was increased to twenty-two, 
and the Swiss confederation was recognized. The Austrian 
jSTetherlands, now Belgium, were united with the old Dutch 
Republic and formed into the kingdom of the Netherlands. 
The king of Denmark was allowed to enter the new German 
confederation as Duke of Holstein. 

German Affairs. — So much for the settlement of general 
European affairs. The next problem was the founding of a new 
German union of some sort which should not be so strong as to 
overthrow the balance of power in Europe. A united Germany 
was necessary, but a strong Germany was feared. The way the 
problem w^as solved is as follows : a confederation was formed 
of thirty-nine independent states, and this remained, until the 
year 1866, the central government of Germany. The presiding 
state in this new confederation was Austria. The character of 
the confederation was defective in that it did not make the 
central government strong enough. Still it was an improve- 
ment over the previous condition of Germany, since it reduced 
the number of states from over 300 to only 39. 



504 GENERAL HISTORY 

General Results of the Wars. — To adjust matters after the 
great upheaval of the Kapoleonic wars had been a task of enor- 
mous difficulty, and many of the arrangements which the Con- 
gress so carefully made were doomed to failure. In German 
affairs it would seem at first thought that the advantage was 
given to Austria. As a matter of fact, however, Prussia was, 
in the long run, destined to derive the most from the new 
arrangements. The rivalry between these two great states of 
Germany becomes, from this time on, the main point of inter- 
est in German history. In the battles of Leipzig and Waterloo 
the kings of Europe had triumphed over France. Since France 
stood for the new ideas, it would naturally seem that this 
victory meant the overthrow of the principles of the Revolu- 
tion. Nevertheless, the arrangements made in 1815 really 
preserved many of the good things which the Revolution had 
brought about ; for Europe had progressed during this interval, 
and it was impossible even for the reactionary monarchs to 
put things back exactly as they had been. To Germany the 
Congress gave a constitution which contained the best results of 
the Revolution, and to Europe it gave peace. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

France under Napoleon. — The Consulate : Entire Change of Govern- 
ment. Napoleon the Chief Power in the State. His Policy toward 
the National Guard. His Relations with the Holy See. A New 
Nobility Created. — Campaign of Marengo: Skillful Operations of 
Napoleon. Sudden Appearance in Italy. Victory at Marengo. 
Moreau's Victory at Hohenlinden. — Treaty of Lun^ville : France 
the Dominant Power over Half the Continent. England's Success on 
Sea. — Internal Affairs : Napoleon's Improvement of Public Works. 
His Encouragement of Literature, Art, and Science. The Codifica- 
tion of the Law. — Napoleon made Consul for Life and Emperor: 
Plots against Him. The Execution of Duke d'Enghien. Napoleon 
Declared Emperor. — Renewal of the War : Trouble with England 
over Malta. • The Alliance against France. — Battle of Trafalgar: 
Nelson's Great Victory. — Battles of Ulm and Austerlitz. — Europe 
after the Battle of Austerlitz : Napoleon the Master of Europe. 
Loss of Austria. The Confederation of the Rhine. — Humiliation of 



EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 505 

Prussia : Defeat in the Battles of Jena and Auerstadt. The Indeci- 
sive Battle of Eylau with the Russians. The Defeat of the Russians 
at Friedland. — Peace of Tilsit : The Alliance of France and Russia. 

— The Continental System : The Berlin Decree. The Milan Decree. 
England's Retaliation. — Beginning of the Peninsular Wars : Napo- 
leon's Interference in Spanish Affairs. The French Occupation. 
Joseph Bonaparte Placed on the Spanish Throne. Spanish Successes. 

— Wagram : The Overthrow of Austria. — Other Aggressions of 
Napoleon : The Papal States. Sweden. The Power of the Emperor. 
— Affairs in Spain : Joseph Bonaparte Restored to the Throne. — 
Siege of Saragossa : Heroism of the Spaniards. — French Reverses ; 
Wellington : Torres Vedras. — Loss of Spain. — The Russian Cam- 
paign: "The Army of Twenty Nations." — Burning of Moscow: 
Return of the French. — Effects of the Expedition. — The War of 
Liberation. — Battle of Leipzig: Defeat of Napoleon. — Abdication 
of Napoleon : His Banishment to Elba. Louis XVIII. — Return of 
Napoleon: The Congress of Vienna. — Waterloo. — Results of Na- 
poleon's Career. — The Congress of Vienna. — Saxony and Poland. 

— Other States : The Settlement of European Affairs. — German 
Affairs: The New Constitution of Germany. — General Results of 
the Wars. 



CHAPTER LXVII 

EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY — FROM 1815 TO 

1830 

The Holy Alliance. — On September 26, 1815, before the 
allies had left Paris, a new alliance was entered into by the 
three chief powers of the continent, — Alexander I. of Russia, 
Francis I. of Austria, and Frederick William III. of Prussia. 
This agreement is known in history as the Holy Alliance. 
The promoter of it was the czar, who had fallen under the 
influence of a religious enthusiast, Fran Von Kriidener. The 
declared purpose of this alliance was to make the principles 
of the New Testament the guide in political matters. The 
sovereigns" resolved "henceforth to take the Christian religion 
as their guide ; to rule their states and regulate their conduct 



506 GENERAL HISTORY 

towards their citizens, strictly in accordance with the precepts 
of justice and Christian love and peace." It was declared that 
the relation of the king to the subject should be that of father 
to son. 

There is no doubt that the czar Alexander was sincere in 
bringing about this arrangement. But it became in the course 
of time merely a league of sovereigns against peoples, and its 
influence was almost invariably exerted on the side of tyranny. 
It was well enough to say that the principles of the New 
Testament should guide the policy of states ; but the important 
question was, who was to decide what the principles of the 
New Testament were. According to the Holy Alliance, this 
decision was to be made by the sovereigns alone. The alliance 
was afterwards joined by every great European power except 
England, the Sultan of Turkey, and the pope. England de- 
clared that by her constitution the voice of her people in 
Parliament assembled must be her guide, and not the royal in- 
terpretation of the New Testament. The sultan was, of course, 
debarred by his religion, and the pope considered himself better 
fitted than a secular sovereign for defining the moral duties of 
a Christian government. There were several great congresses 
of the European powers held to carry out the principles of the 
Holy Alliance, and the results of these congresses were of great 
importance. The first of these was at Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), 
where it was decided to withdraw from France the army of oc- 
cupation. 

France under Louis XVIII. — Louis XVIII., although he had 
shown himself unwise on his first restoration, was on the whole 
favorable to a moderate government. But his brother, Count 
of Artois, was a Bourbon of the old type, narrow-minded, 
bigoted, and bound to bring back despotism. There w^as a 
numerous party that favored these reactionary ideas, but dur- 
ing Louis' reign the party that favored a constitutional mon- 
archy gained in power. Louis died in 1824 and was succeeded 
by the Count of Artois under the title of Charles X. 

Spain. — Ferdinand VII., Avho belonged to the Bourbon 



EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 507 

family, had been restored to the throne of Spain. He rnled as 
an absolute monarch. But Spain had established a constitu- 
tion in 1812, which gave certain definite powers to the rep- 
resentatives of the people. The educated classes generally 
favored a government in which the king's authority was re- 
stricted by that of Parliament, but Ferdinand disregarded this 
feeling entirely. He tried to restore everything as it had been 
before the Revolution. He offended the best classes of the 
Spanish population. Moreover, he became involved in difficul- 
ties with his American colonies ; for the latter revolted against 
Spain and formed themselves into independent states. The 
government spent an enormous amount of money and wasted 
thousands of lives in the attempt to restore the Spanish power 
over the colonies. The treasury became impoverished and the 
troops were ill equipped. Discontent pervaded all classes, es- 
pecially the army, and in 1820 there was a military revolt whose 
leaders declared themselves in favor of the constitution of 1812. 
The Congress of Verona. — The attention of the members of 
the Holy Alliance was turned to Spain. Representatives of 
the powers assembled at Verona in 1822 and decided to inter- 
fere in Spanish affairs ; for the revolt there seemed to promise 
the triumph of the principles of the French Revolution. The 
insurgents had proclaimed the constitution of 1812, extorted 
concessions from the king, and placed the liberals in control 
of the government. These things were enough to make the 
members of the Holy Alliance anxious. It was decided at the 
Congress of Verona that France should interfere on behalf of 
Ferdinand VII. in Spain, although England opposed this course 
and advised France to do the same. In fact, England was the 
only great European power that adopted a liberal policy. In 
1822 Canning became secretary for foreign affairs in England 
and his influence was always exerted on the side of popular 
rights. But France disregarded the advice of the English repre- 
sentative at the Congress of Verona, and the Duke of Angou- 
leme, at th'e head of a large army, entered Spain and crushed 
the revolutionists. The leaders of the revolt were hanged, a 



508 GENERAL HISTORY 

large number of those who had demanded a constitutional gov- 
ernment were thrown into prison, and Ferdinand VII. was re- 
stored in all his absolute power. Thus through the influence of 
the Holy Alliance the liberal movemcDt in Spain was crushed out. 

Italy. — We have seen that members of the Austrian house 
ruled over most of the principalities of Italy as a result of the 
decision of the Congress of Vienna. Their rule was tyrannical, 
and there arose a party among the natives that favored a 
limitation of the royal power. One of the most powerful influ- 
ences in Italy was exerted by a secret society called the Car- 
bona'ri, which aimed at overthrowing the despotism under 
which their country suffered. The news of the Spanish revolt 
caused a sympathetic movement in Italy. In the kingdom of 
Naples a constitution similar to the Spanish constitution of 
1812 was proclaimed. The liberal party seemed on the point of 
triumph, but now, as later in the case of Spain, the Holy Alliance 
intervened. A congress of the members of that league was 
called in Troppau in 1820, but afterwards transferred its meet- 
ing to Laibach in 1821. A league between Austria and Russia 
and Prussia was formed at this Congress, and Austria was 
commissioned to enter Italy and crush out the revolution. An 
army of 60,000 men was accordingly dispatched by Austria to 
Italy, and the revolution was overthrown. 

Germany. — After the Congress of Vienna the most potent 
influence in European politics was exercised by Prince Metter- 
nich, the minister of Francis L, Emperor of Austria. This 
influence was always on the side of the dynasties, and against 
the people. Metternich looked upon the overthrow of Napoleon 
as the death of the principles for which the French Revolution 
stood, and he wanted to bring back the old order of things. 
He was seconded in his schemes by the emperor Francis I., 
whose ideas on political subjects are best illustrated by some 
remarks which he addressed to a delegation of teachers that 
interviewed him in Austria. " There are now new ideas in 
progress," he said, '- which I can not and will not approve. 
Hold fast to old ideas. I need no learned men. I do need 



EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 509 

brave citizens. Your duty is to make the nation into such. 
Whoever serves me must accept what I command. Whoever 
is unable to do that, or comes to me with new ideas, can go or 
I will remove him." 

Suppression of Liberalism. — It was the policy of Austria to 
suppress any liberal movement the instant it showed itself. 
Naturally this policy was especially effective in Germany, of 
which Austria at this time was the leading state. On the 18th 
of October, 1817, the students of the University of Jena gath- 
ered together and, in imitation of Luther, burned some pam- 
phlets attacking German unity. Before this the liberal jiarty 
in Germany had shown opposition to the existing government 
because constitutions were not granted in the German states. 
This outbreak of the students at Jena was looked upon by the 
Austrian government as a revolution, and in 1819 another 
event occurred which increased the alarm of the forces of abso- 
lutism. This was the murder of a writer named Kotzebue 
by a Jena student. Kotzebue had written against the liberal 
programme and was regarded by the liberal party as a foe to 
the liberals of Germany. A young student named Sand felt 
that he was serving the cause of the liberals by murdering 
Kotzebue. Sand was executed for his act, and the reactionary 
party, headed by Metternich, now called a congress of the 
German ministers at Carlsbad, August 6, 1819. This congress 
decided upon several repressive measures, among them a stricter 
censorship of the press and a rigid superintendence of the uni- 
versities. The object was to prevent all liberal agitation, and 
it was soon evident that the hope of the German states for a 
constitutional government was vain. 

The War of Greek Independence. — In the early part of the 
nineteenth century Greece was a province of Turkey. The 
tyranny of the sultan, coupled with the weakness of his state, 
led the Greeks to revolt. There had been in existence for 
some years a secret society organized for the purpose of in- 
citing tlie people to make an effort for their liberty. The 
revolt broke out at first in the provinces to the north of Greece, 



510 



GENERAL HISTORY 



where it was hoped that the people woukl rise against the 
Turkish governnient. It was imsiiccessful there, but in Greece 
proper there was much enthusiasm for the movement. A 
national congress was called, and in 1822 adopted a new con- 
stitution. 

Throughout Europe much sympathy was felt with the Greek 
cause. Nevertheless, the members of the Holy Alliance chose 
to regard it merely as a revolt of the people against their 
government, and at the Congress of Verona it was decided that 
no aid should be given to the rebels. So Greece was left at 

first to fight against the supe- 
J^L-^ - rior power of the Turks with- 

out any outside aid. Many 
barbarities were committed by 
both sides during the war. The 
Turks, having taken the island 
of Scio, massacred nearly 20,- 
000 of the inhabitants, and the 
Greeks took a no less bloody 
revenge whenever they had the 
good luck to capture a body of 
the enemy. But volunteer 
troops came to their aid. Among 
these chivalrous foreigners was 
Lord Byron, who died of fever 
at Missolonghi in 1824 while 
trying to aid the Greek cause. 

Greek Independence Secured. 
— In the end the Greeks won 
their liberty, but not by their own exertions. The states of 
Europe interfered in their behalf, not so much from considera- 
tions of the right and wrong of the matter, as from the fear 
that Kussia would take the side of Greece and pay herself for 
the trouble by seizing a part of the Turkish territory. For 
Alexander L, the founder of the Holy Alliance, had died in 
1825, and he was succeeded by Nicholas I., who Avas inclined 




A Greek 



THE HE VOLUTION OF 1830 511 

to take the side of the Greeks. By the Treaty of London in 
1827 the great powers formed another alliance which resulted 
in the liberation of (rreece. A Turkish army had overrun the 
Greek peninsula and the little nation was on the point of de- 
struction, but the allies overthrew the Turkish fleet in the bat- 
tle of iSTavarino, October 20, 1827, and Greek independence was 
soon afterwards formally established. In the years 1828 and 
1829 Russia, who had a special grievance against Turkey on her 
own account, waged war with the sultan and obliged him to 
conclude a peace on advantageous terms to her. By this peace, 
known as the Treaty of Adrianople (1829), the sultan recog- 
nized the independence of Greece. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Europe from 1815 to 1830. — The Holy Alliance : Its Professed Object. 
Its Real Spirit. — France under Louis XVIII. — Spain. Ferdinand 
VIL The Revolt of Spain in 1820. — The Congress of Verona: 
French Intervention. The Restoration of Ferdinand VII. to Ab- 
solute Power. — Italy : Revolutionary Movement in 1820. The 
Intervention of Austria and the Suppression of the Italian Revolu- 
tion. — Germany : Metternich's Policy. — Suppression of Liber- 
alism : The Student Outbreak of Jena. The Murder of Kotzebue. 
The Carlsbad Congress. — The War of Greek Independence : Revolu- 
tion in Greece. Barbarous Character of the War. — Greek Indepen- 
dence Secured: Intervention of the Powers. Battle of Navarino. 
Greek Independence. 



CHAPTER LXVIII 

THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 AND ITS EFFECTS 

France under Charles X. — Charles X. tried to restore the 
old system of the Bourbons. He was devotedly attached to 
the Church and wished to make the ecclesiastical power all 
that it had been in the past. His policy was unpopular, and a 
liberal ministry gained control for a while, but was succeeded 



512 GENERAL HISTORY 

by a ministry which represented fully the extreme and narrow- 
minded views of the king. This was the ministry of Prince 
Polignac, which was bitterly opposed by some of the most 
eminent men of France. In the opposition were to be counted 
the great names of Guizot, Thiers, and Benjamin Constant. 
The first two were especially active as advocates of a constitu- 
tional government. The king's party tried to win popular 
favor by a campaign in Algiers, which, though it was success- 
ful and laid the foundation of the Prench power over that 
country, did not have the desired effect. The Legislature was 
active in its opposition to the king. The government now 
took the rash step of dissolving the Chamber, and when the 
time came for its reassembling declared the elections illegal, 
and so prevented the meeting of the Assembly. These and 
other decrees equally unpopular were issued in July, 1830, and 
are known in history as the Ordinances of St. Cloud. 

The Revolution of 1830 in France. — Between 1815 and 1830 
the friends of constitutional government had been gaining 
ground, and the Ordinances of St. Cloud were regarded as vio- 
lations of the constitution. It was planned to resist them by 
force. Paris was in an uproar, and the citizens managed to 
arm themselves and took possession of the city hall. The king 
refused to yield until it was too late. The arm}^, on which the 
government had relied, was in full sympathy with the people. 
In a few days the king and his ministry were obliged to flee 
from Paris and a provisional government was set up. In this 
crisis all eyes turned to Louis Philippe, the Duke of Orleans, 
as the right person to assume the crown. He appeared in 
Paris, and members of the Legislature declared him Lieutenant 
General of the kingdom. Charles X. agreed to this, for he did 
not seem to suspect that Louis Philippe had any idea of be- 
coming king. The sincerity of Louis is a matter of doubt. At 
all events, when he found that the representatives of the people 
wished him for their king, he did not allow himself to be 
troubled by a sense of duty to Charles X. Eesistance on the 
part of Charles was hopeless, for he was deserted by the army. 



THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 



513 









Effect of the Revolution of 1830. — In France the Revolution 
of 1830, or the July Revolution, as it is sometimes called, was 
thus completely successful. It now remains to trace the effects 
of the movement upon other countries. Between 1815 and 
1830 the discontent of the liberal element in each of the Euro- 
pean states had steadily 

increased; for the rulers, ^ 

true to the policy of Met- 
ternich, refused to take 
one step in the direction 
of popular government. 
Accordingly when revolu- 
tion broke out in France, 
the disaffected classes in 
the other states were 
quick to follow the exam- 
ple. Since European 
sovereigns generally fol- 
lowed the same policy in 
dealing with their sub- 
jects, the liberal party 
everywhere had much 
the same grounds of com- 
plaint. So it happened that during the lirst half of the 
nineteenth century, a revolt in one part of Europe was sure to 
be followed by sympathetic outbreaks in other parts. This 
was true of the Revolution of 1830. Belgium was the first to 
feel the effects, and the revolutionary spirit quickly showed 
itself in Poland, Italy, Germany, and even England. 

Belgium. — To suit the supposed interests of the European 
courts, Belgium and Holland had been united into a single 
kingdom by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. It was an un- 
natural union, formed in utter disregard of the prejudices of 
the two peoples. William I. of Holland was the head of this 
united kingdom, and offended the Belgians by his arbitrary 
treatment of them. When revolution broke out in France, 





The Column of July 
(Commemorating the Revolution of 1S;30) 



514 GENERAL HISTORY 

Belgium rose against the oppressor. A provisional government 
was established at Brussels and the independence of Belgium 
was declared. A sharp struggle followed between the Bel- 
gians and the government, for William, supported by his Dutch 
subjects, Avas bent on maintaining his rule. But for the inter- 
ference of foreign powers, the Dutch would probably have 
forced Belgium back into the union. The foreign governments 
recognized her independence in 1831, and Leopold I. of Saxe- 
Coburg became king. French troops aided him in the war 
with Holland, and in 1833 independence was secured, though 
it was not formally admitted by Holland till 1839. Leopold 
was a liberal prince, and under his government the country 
prospered. 

Poland. — Here, too, an effort Avas made to overthrow one of 
the arrangements of the Congress of Vienna. It will be remem- 
bered that the Congress gave the Duchy of Warsaw to the 
Czar Alexander I. of Eussia, who, however, was not to incor- 
porate it with Russia, but to rule it separately. It had a con- 
stitution of its own and a separate administrative system. 
Unfortunately, the government was intrusted to Alexander's 
brother, the Grand Duke Constantine, who lacked both ability 
and tact, and needlessly offended his Polish subjects. Alex- 
ander died in 1825, and was succeeded by Nicholas, who sup- 
ported the misgovernment of Constantine. Nicholas was the 
enemy of all liberal ideas, and when revolution broke out in 
France and Belgium he wanted to form an alliance against 
those countries. Preparing for war, he ordered the Polish 
army to be put on a war footing. This was the signal for a 
military revolt. In a short time the government was in the 
hands of the insurgents. Constantine fled, but the Czar would 
not treat with the rebels or promise any reforms. Instead of 
this he sent an invading army under General Diebitsch into the 
country. The Poles showed all their old-time lack of hannony 
in the presence of danger. Divided among themselves and 
badly generaled, they were defeated in the battle of Ostrolenka, 
May 26, 1831. General Diebitsch died soon afterwards, but 



THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 515 

tlie command of the Russian armies was vested in an equally 
able leader, General Paskevitch, who captured Warsaw in 
September. The Poles had fought bravely, but they suffered 
from the inefficiency and even treachery of their officers. One 
of their generals surrendered an army of 10,000 men without 
fighting a battle. Their cause was lost, and they were not even 
allowed the small measure of independence which they had 
enjoyed before the war. Nicholas destroyed the last vestige 
of Polish liberty. He absorbed the entire state in his Eussian 
dominions. 

Italy. — Italy also felt the shock of revolution. The Car- 
bonari with its programme of liberty and union for Italy had 
been gathering strength, and when news came of the successful 
revolution in France several Italian cities became the scene of 
revolutionary agitation. In 1821, Naples and Sardinia had 
been the centers of the revolutionary movement. In 1831, it 
was the States of the Church, where the government of the 
cardinals was hated by the liberals. But in Modena and 
Parma, also, there was revolution, and the Austrian rulers of 
both these states were driven out. At first the revolt was 
equally successful in the Papal States. Representatives of the 
states in a general assembly abolished the temporal rule of the 
pope, and set up a new government. But the time had not 
come for the triumph of liberal principles in Italy. Only a 
few of the states took part in the revolution, and the rest gave 
no effective support. The insurgents had counted on aid from 
France, but none was sent. Without outside aid or internal 
union there was no hope of success against the great power of 
Austria. With the aid of Austrian troops the revolt was easily 
put down. The rulers of Parma and Modena came back to 
their thrones, the pope regained his temporal power, and the 
old order of things was restored. Nevertheless the liberal 
cause was by no means crushed. The party of Young Italy, 
under the guidance of the brilliant and zealous Mazzini, kept 
alive the hatred of Austria and the aspirations for liberty and 
self-government; and in the north the kingdom of Sardinia, 



516 GENERAL HISTORY 

whose king was an enemy to the Austrian rule, and inclined to 
a liberal policy, seemed to promise a nucleus for Italian unity 
and independence. 

Germany. — When the Congress of Vienna reorganized the 
government of Germany in 1815, it promised that constitutions 
should be granted to the separate states. We have seen, how- 
ever, that the spirit of Metternich was the controlling influence 
there, and that anything that looked like liberalism was sternly 
repressed. The Carlsbad Decrees (1819) mark the triumph of 
this repressive policy. Nevertheless several of the German 
states managed to secure constitutions, partly through threats 
of force, and partly through the good will of their rulers. For 
the Germans, also, were greatly influenced by the revolution 
in France, and before the year 1830 came to an end there were 
uprisings in Brunswick and Saxony. These states, as well 
as Hesse, Hanover, and several of the south German states, 
gained important concessions from their governments. But 
here, as in Italy and Poland, the liberal movement was only 
temporarily successful. 

England and the Reform Bill (1832). — England introduced 
reforms not by the Continental methods of revolt and bloodshed, 
but by the pressure of public opinion upon her representatives 
in Parliament. The Revolution of 1688 had completely changed 
her system of government, and gained many of the results 
aimed at by the French Ke volution just one hundred years 
later. And yet the Eevolution of 1688 had taken place with- 
out bloodshed. Fully as great a change in her system of 
government was accomplished by the passage of the Reform 
Bill of 1832, and this change was also brought about by peace- 
ful means, although there was for a time a threat of violence. 
The Reform Bill gave the right to vote to hundreds of thou- 
sands of people who had not before possessed it. It brought 
the middle classes into power, and so swept away the exclusive 
right of the aristocracy. Before 1832 the members of the 
House of Commons were chosen by a very limited class of 
voters, seats were often in the gift of members of the nobility, 



THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 517 

and little places with a handful of inhabitants had the right to 
return a member, while some of the largest and wealthiest 
cities were without representation. The Reform Bill redis- 
tricted the country and extended the suffrage. It did not 
grant this right ta the great mass of the people, but it was a 
step in that direction. The gainers by it at first were merely 
the middle class, — a class which had become wealthy and 
powerful and could no longer be disregarded. The Tories 
bitterly opposed it as a revolutionary measure, and such in 
fact it was. In the meanwhile more liberal views in religious 
matters had begun to show themselves. The Catholic Emanci- 
pation Bill removing the disabilities against Catholics was 
passed in 1829. Down to this time they had been excluded 
from almost all important offices and could not sit in Parlia- 
ment. 

Summary. — The revolutionary movements of 1830 and 1831 
arose from the discontent of the people in the several states 
with the policy which controlled European affairs after the 
Congress of Vienna. The first representative of this i)olicy 
was the Holy Alliance, which to liberal minds appeared to be 
a league of the despots against the people. The Holy Alliance, 
whose guiding spirit was Prince Metternich, held that the 
interests of the sovereigns were the same, that a revolt against 
the government of one was a menace to the power of the others, 
and that armed intervention on behalf of any ruler who hap- 
pened to get into trouble with his subjects was the duty of the 
other members of the league. The spirit of this policy was 
shown in Germany by the Carlsbad Decrees (1819), which 
checked the liberal movement there. It was shown also at the 
C'ongresses of Troppau and Laibach, where it was decided to 
crush the popular movement in Italy, and at the Congress of 
Verona (1822), where it was decided to take the side of the 
Spanish despot against his subjects. On each of these occa- 
sions the policy of intermeddling was carried out with success ; 
and the idea- that a nation's domestic affairs were the concern 
of all other powers became so fixed in the minds of the sover- 

COLBV'S GEN. HIST, 33 



518 GENERAL HISTORY 

eigns that they even thought of reaching across the Atlantic 
and forcing Spain's revolted colonies in South America back 
into submission. Here, however, England, through her minister 
Canning, made an emphatic protest, and the government of the 
United States set up in the famous Monroe Doctrine the prin- 
ciple that the monarchies of the Old World had no business in 
the New. The allies drew back, and Spain lost her colonies 
forever. 

The Revolution of 1830 was successful in France, the country 
of its origin. A popular king came to the throne and took his 
oath to a constitution limiting the royal power in important 
respects. It was successful in Belgium, who detached herself 
by force from a union which she detested, and who placed on 
the throne a king of liberal views. Under the new system she 
prospered, and later, when political storms arose in other coun- 
tries, they passed her by. The revolution failed in Italy, and 
the old system was restored. It was worse than a failure in 
Poland, for the Duchy of Warsaw, all that was left of the 
Polish state, was blotted out of existence, becoming a part of 
Russia. In Germany it was successful at first, but in a few 
years the liberals lost much of what they had gained. England 
was out of the current of Euroj^ean affairs, yet there, too, 
occurred a struggle between the old and the new. A great and 
peaceful revolution was effected, giving a share in the govern- 
ment to a class that had never before possessed it. So the 
results of the Revolution were somewhat doubtful, but view- 
ing them broadly we can see that the new ideas had gained 
ground. And, as we shall see in the next chapter, it was 
not long before another great wave of revolution rolled over 
Europe. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

The Revolution of 1830 and its Effects. — France under Charles 
X. : Narrow-minded Policy of Charles. The Opposition. The Ordi- 
nances of St. Cloud. — The Revolution of 1830 in France : Louis 
Philippe. Charles Deserted by the Army. — Effect of the Revolu- 
tion of 1830 : Rapid Spread of the Revolution throughout Europe. — 



EUROPE FROM 1831 TO 1851 519 

Belgium : The Union with Holland. Belgium's Independence Se- 
cured. — Poland : Russian Misgovernment. Polish Revolt. The 
Battle of Ostrolenka. Defeat of the Poles. Complete Destruction 
of Polish Liberty. — Italy : The Carbonari. The Revolutionary 
Movements in 1831. Their Suppression by the Austrians. Young 
Italy. Mazzini. Sardinia. — Germany : Progress after 1820. Lib- 
eral Concessions Secured from Several German Governments. —Eng- 
land and the Reform Bill : Limited Representation in Parliament. 
Opposition to Reform. The Reform Bill Passed. Its Effects.— 
Summary : Spain's Revolted Colonies. The Monroe Doctrine. Bel- 
gium. Poland. England. 



CHAPTER LXIX 

EUROPE FROM 1831 TO 1851 

France under Louis Philippe. — The new king was popular at 
first. His government was moderate and in some respects 
even ' liberal, as compared with the government of his prede- 
cessor. For instance, he extended the suffrage by lessening the 
amount of property required to entitle a man to vote. But 
the difficulty of governing France at this time was very great, 
for there was a constantly growing demand for an enlarge- 
ment of popular rights. There were three parties in the state : 
first, the conservative party, that had brought Louis Philippe 
into power and wished to keep things as they were ; second, 
the moderate constitutionalists, who would be content with the 
monarchy if it adopted measures of reform, such for instance 
as a further extension of the suffrage ; and, third, the radicals, 
who wanted a republic. The great representative of the first 
party, which was of course the party of the king, was Guizot ; 
and of the second, Thiers ; these two being the leading states- 
men of the time, while the radicals included among them men 
of all shades of opinion from moderate republicans to socialists. 
Louis Philippe tried to follow a progressive policy until he 
became alarmed at the threatening attitude of the radicals. 



520 GENERAL HISTORY 

Several attempts were made on his life, and, after one of 
these, when a conspirator named Fieschi threw an "infernal 
machine " in the street as the king was passing, laws were 
passed restricting the liberty of the press. The king thought 
that if he respected the constitution at home and maintained 
peace abroad, he would win the good will of his subjects. In 
both these respects he was wrong, for his people wanted a 
change in the constitution and a foreign war. They wanted 
France to intervene on behalf of Poland and Belgium, and they 
wanted every adult male citizen to have the right to vote. In 
the matter of intervention the king yielded to some extent, for, 
as we have seen, French troops aided the Belgians in the war 
with Holland. Yet the foreign policy of France was in general 
unsatisfactory, especially in regard to Eastern affairs. At this 
time the Sultan of Turkey was having trouble with his vassal, 
Mehemet Ali, the viceroy of Egypt, who was trying to enlarge 
his dominions and make himself independent. In one war 
with the Sultan, Mehemet secured the government of Syria; 
in another he sent a conquering army into Asia Minor and 
threatened Constantinople ; and in a third, renewed by the 
Sultan for the purpose of making good his losses, Mehemet 
brought the Turkish Empire to the verge of ruin. The four 
great powers, England, Prussia, Austria, and Russia, having 
joined in the Quadruple Alliance, interfered and saved Turkey 
from destruction, restricting the power of Mehemet Ali. 
France had been his friend, and the action of the allies proved 
the French policy a failure. The people favored war rather 
than submit to this, but the government thought otherwise. 
Its course seemed to the people cowardly and disgraceful. The 
king increased his unpopularity by his avarice and by his 
schemes for adding to the power of his family. But the most 
important thing of all was the attitude of the throne toward 
the demand for universal suffrage. 

Efforts for Reform. — Hardly one twenty-fifth of the adult 
male population of France had the right to vote, even after the 
government had extended the suffrage ; but the king refused 



EUROPE FROM 1831 TO 1851 521 

to go any further in the path of reform. In this he was guided 
by the advice of his minister Guizot, who, while he believed 
in a moderately progressive policy, distrusted the people, and 
thought that the extension of the suffrage would be a step 
toward the anarchy of the Reign of Terror. Since the number 
of republicans throughout the country was increasing, it seemed 
to the government that adding to the number of voters was 
putting power into the hands of its enemies. In 1845, Lamar- 
tine founded a journal and began in it an agitation for universal 
suffrage. The editors of about thirty daily papers followed his 
example, and one of these editors, named Ledru-Rollin, was 
elected to the Assembly in 1846. Thiers, though opposed to 
the views of the extremists, also demanded an extension of the 
suffrage. The reformers tried to control the Assembly, but, fail- 
ing in this, they determined to appeal to the people. Reform 
mass meetings were held, at which violent speeches against the 
government were made ; but the king, relying on his majority 
in the Assembly, paid no attention to the agitation. 

Revolution of 1848. — The conflict came when Guizot pro- 
hibited the holding of a great reform banquet appointed for 
February 22, 1848. Mobs gathered in the streets shouting for 
reform and "Down with Guizot!" Por four days the rioting 
continued, and though the king finally consented to the re- 
forms and appointed Thiers to the ministry, the concessions 
came too late. The republicans wished the overthrow of the 
government. Louis Philippe abdicated in favor of his grand- 
son, the Count of Paris, but the people rejected him and 
demanded a provisional government as a step to the establish- 
ment of a republic. For a time it seemed as if Paris was 
about to pass through the violent scenes that had disgraced 
the Revolution of 1789. Among the revolutionists were many 
.who wanted the most radical changes. Socialists like Louis 
Blanc wished to set up a government which should recognize 
its obligation to provide for the employment and support of 
all citizens. The middle class, however, fearing the anarchy 
of mob rule, stood by the moderate republicans. A provisional 



522 GENERAL HISTORY 

government composed of Laniartine, Ledru-Rollin, and others, 
was formed, and declared for a rejjublic based on nniversal suf- 
frage. The matter was to be voted upon by all the people of 
France in April. This reference of the question to the popu- 
lar decision was just what the radicals did not want, for they 
knew that while they were strong in Paris, moderate views 
were likely to prevail throughout the rest of France. Accord- 
ingly, on April 16, a great mass of the Parisians moved against 
the City Hall for the purpose of enforcing their will by vio- 
lence; but the National Guards took the side of the party of 
order, and the mob was dispersed. 

The Republic Established. — The elections now went on and 
members were chosen for a National Assembly. The majority 
was composed wholly of moderates, and the radicals were insig- 
nificant in point of numbers. The people of France through 
their representatives had decided for a republic and against the 
wild schemes of the extremists. This National Assembly, how- 
ever, was weakened by divisions among its members, and the 
radicals, taking heart, attempted another revolution. A mob 
attacked the Assembly on May 15, drove out some of the mem- 
bers, and declared the body dissolved, but the National Guards 
dispersed the mob. Before tliis the Assembly, in an effort to 
please the socialists, had set up National Workshops on the 
principle that the government was to provide work for the 
unemployed. The scheme was a ridiculous failure, but when 
the government tried to give it up and dismissed part of the 
workmen, the socialists and communists again fell to rioting. 
From June 23 to June 26 occurred a famous four days' fight 
in the streets of Paris, and it was not till the Assembly had 
called in the aid of General Cavaignac and made him dictator 
that the revolt was put down. Protected by Cavaignac and 
the army, the Assembly went on and drew up the constitution 
of the republic. 

Louis Napoleon. — The head of the new republic was a presi- 
dent elected by universal suffrage. The question was who 
should be selected for this office. In France at this time there 



EUROrE FROM 1831 TO 1851 523 

was no one among her active politicians Avhom it was safe to 
choose, for all the leaders were partisans. Cavaignac, though 
a brave general, lacked the qualities of a successful statesman. 
In these straits it was necessary to fall back on the bearers of 
great names, and of these the least objectionable was Louis 
Napoleon Bonaparte. Kings had been too often driven from 
the throne to make it possible to choose a Bourbon, while the 
name of Bonaparte was associated with the glory of France. 
Louis Napoleon, up to this time, had been rather insignificant. 
Years before, he had made two ill-judged attempts to stir up 
the people against the government, and had failed completely. 
People thought him dull. But this did not matter. He was 
modest and unassuming and thought to be a safe man for the 
place. The people of France elected him by an enormous 
majority. This was the outcome of the Revolution of 1848, 
the so-called February Revolution in France. The next thing 
to consider is how the movement affected other countries. 

Germany. — Again revolution in France was the signal for 
outbreaks in the other European states. In Germany several 
of the small states felt its effect at once. The news barely 
had time to reach Germany when the agitation was begun. 
In Baden the popular party demanded freedom of the press, 
trial by jury, popular representation, and other reforms. The 
government yielded, and the example of Baden was quickly 
imitated in the other states. Within a very few days 
important reforms were granted in all the smaller states. 
Prussia and Austria also felt the shock, but did not yield so 
readily. In Germany the patriotic party aimed not only at 
an enlargement of popular rights, but at the unification of the 
German states and the establishment of a better form of cen- 
tral government in place of the old Confederation, which, it 
will be remembered, was the creation of the Congress of 
Vienna. 

In Mafch, 1848, there were popular demonstrations in the 
streets of Berlin, for the Prussian king, Frederick William 
IV., would not yield at first to the demand for representative 



524 GENERAL HISTORY 

government. The king gave way at last, but would not listen 
to the demand of the people that the troops should be sent 
away from Berlin. Conflicts between the people and the 
troops broke out, and over two hundred of the former were 
shot down ; but this angered the people all the more, and 
the revolt became so threatening that the king sent away the 
troops. The king now declared himself at the head of the 
popular movement for liberty and German unity. In a proc- 
lamation addressed to his people and the German nation, he 
used the famous words, " Henceforward Prussia takes the lead 
in Germany." 

The success of the movement in Prussia had been aided by 
the news from the Austrian capital. On March 13 and 14, 
1848, there was an uprising in Vienna; Metternich was 
forced to lay down his office and flee to England; the im- 
perial court was removed to Innsbruck, and the control of 
Vienna passed to the revolutionists. What was even more 
alarming, the same spirit showed itself all over the Austrian 
empire, which seemed for the moment on the point of dissolu- 
tion. All these movements had resulted in the victory of the 
liberal party in its struggle against the German governments. 
The next point to be decided was the question of German' 
unity. 

The Meeting of the Frankfort Parliament (1848). — On May 
18, 1848, there met at Frankfort an assembly of statesmen 
and scholars, chosen by the direct vote of the people, for the 
purpose of giving Germany a new government which should 
insure security without and liberty within. It was the first 
time in the history of Germany that such an event had taken 
place. It seemed to promise the birth of a new German state 
— a state, moreover, created by the people. The people were 
enthusiastic, and high hopes were entertained of its work. 
Unfortunately the difficulties in the way of reorganization 
were very great. In the first place, there was the nvalry be- 
tween Austria and Prussia and the question which of them 
should take the lead in the new state. In the second place, 



EUROPE FROM 1831 TO 1851 525 

there was the opposition of the princes of the smaller states 
to any further steps toward liberal government. Moreover, 
the energy and practical common sense necessary to overcome 
these difficulties were wholly lacking in the Assembly. Hav- 
ing everything to do, they did nothing but talk. They wasted 
their time in fruitless discussion, at a time when prompt action 
meant everything; for reform was possible only when the 
revolutionary spirit was at its height, and before the reaction 
set in. 

Italy. — Italy broke ont in revolt against the Austrian power 
a few weeks after the beginning of the revolution in France. 
The Austrian troops were driven out of Lombardy. An Aus- 
trian force surrendered to the Venetians, and Venice became a 
free republic. In Parma and Modena the Austrian govern- 
ments were again overthrown. The pope's ministers were 
murdered, and he himself obliged to flee. The Duke of Tus- 
cany ran away rather than submit to the demands of his 
subjects. Thus in a short time the Austrian power in Italy 
was overthrown. At the head of the movement was Charles 
Albert, King of Sardinia, a member of the royal house that 
was destined to win unity and independence for Italy. For 
the moment the revolution was successful. 

Reaction ; France. — After 1848, as after 1830, there was a 
reaction against the revolution. In the first moments of enthu- 
siasm the people went too far, and some of their work was after- 
wards undone. Governments frightened by the show of force 
gained courage when the danger was past and worked steadily to 
restore things as they had been. France was the first to begin 
the revolution, and she soon began to retrace her steps. Louis 
Napoleon was not so dull as people thought. He had an 
unusual talent for intrigue, and he worked quietly and steadily 
for the restoration of the empire. Public opinion is fickle in 
France, and these efforts of Louis Napoleon received popular 
support. He had made the clergy his friends by interfering 
on behalf of Pope Pius IX., who had been driven out by the 
revolutionists. In violation of the constitution, the President 



526 



GENERAL HISTORY 




Napoleon III 



of the Erench Republic, soon after his election, sent troops to 
Rome to restore the government of the pope. All those who 
favored a monarchy in France upheld Louis in his efforts to 
make himself supreme, and the first legislature that came 
together under the constitution contained a majority of anti- 
republicans. The president 
filled the offices with his adhe- 
rents and resorted to every de- 
vice to court popularity. He 
posed as the people's defender 
against the legislature. The 
latter body had passed a law 
restricting the suffrage. This 
measure, by which three mil- 
lion citizens were deprived of 
their votes, gave the president 
a chance to discredit the leg- 
islature before the people. 
He demanded the restoration of universal suffrage. His term 
was to expire on May 2, 1852, and according to the constitu- 
tion he was not eligible to reelection. He saw that the peo- 
ple generally Avere in favor of a continuance of his government, 
but a change in the constitution could be made only by a vote 
of three fourths of the Assembly, and this majority could not 
be found. Accordingly he resorted to force. Early on the 
morning of December 2, 185J, the leaders of the opposition 
were seized in their beds and sent to prison. Troops closed the 
Assembly, and when the people awoke next day they found 
notices posted on the street corners announcing the dissolution 
of the Assembly, the reestablishment of universal suffrage, 
and the appointment of new elections to decide upon changes 
in the constitution. This was the famous Coup cVetat of 1851. 
It Avorked perfectly. By an almost unanimous vote the people 
decided to extend the president's term of office to ten years, 
and a new constitution was formed embodying all the points 
on which Louis Napoleon had insisted. The constitution went 



EUROPE FROM 1831 TO 1851 527 

into force at the beginning of the year 1852, and before the 
end of that year the question of restoring the empire was sub- 
mitted to the people. Again a nearly unanimous vote decided 
in favor of Napoleon. He became Emperor of the French 
under the title of Napoleon III. So the Revolution of 1848 
accomplished nothing permanent. In three years a monarchy 
was restored, more absolute in principle than that which had 
been overthrown. 

Italy. — The Italian revolution, which, under the leadership 
of Charles Albert, of Sardinia, had expelled the Austrian power 
from northern Italy, enjoyed but a short triumph. The revo- 
lutionary party had the same defects as in 1830. Italy was 
not united, and the military direction of affairs was unskillful. 
Charles Albert was defeated at Custozza (July 25, 1848) and 
at Novara (March 23, 1849). The Austrian power in Italy 
was restored. Charles Albert in his despair abdicated his 
throne in favor of his young son, Victor Emmanuel. 

Germany. — The unpractical National Assembly at Frank- 
fort made no progress toward the establishment of a new Ger- 
man government. For a long time they were divided on the 
question whether Austria should be admitted to the new Ger- 
many. When they decided to exclude her, she refused to 
abide by the decision. When they offered to Frederick William 
IV., of Prussia, the headship of the new German confederation 
under the title of " Emperor of the Germans," not only Austria 
but several of the other states said that they would not sub- 
mit. Moreover, Frederick William himself refused the doubt- 
ful title. As the new constitution which they had adopted 
was rejected by the principal states, their work amounted 
to nothing. The meinbers began to withdraw, and finally 
what was left of the Assembly was dissolved by force June 
18, 1849. In the meanwhile an assembly was called in Prus- 
sia to draw up a constitution. It Avas soon at odds with the 
king, and was dissolved. The government published a constitu- 
tion of its own making. In the other states of Germany also 
there were signs of reaction. 



528 GENERAL HISTORY 

Austria and Hungary. — In Austria the difficulties of 1848- 
49 were complicated by the race question. In the German 
part of her dominions she put down the revolution, but not till 
after severe fighting at Vienna, the Emperor Ferdinand hav- 
ing abdicated in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph. The 
most serious danger was caused by the Hungarians, who 
wanted to be independent of Austria, and by the Bohemians, 
who broke out in revolt at Prague. The Bohemian revolt was 
put down first. That of the Hungarians, under their patriot 
leader, Kossuth, was more formidable. The course of the 
Hungarians, however, was unwise, and their armies were badly 
managed. Russia, moreover, aided Austria against them. 
The insurrection was init down. Kossuth and the other lead- 
ers fled to Turkey. Those who had taken part in the revolt 
were treated with cruelty, the constitution was annulled, and 
Hungary reduced to the position of a conquered province. 

Conclusion. — Apparently the liberal ideas which triumphed 
for a moment in 1848 had left no results. France was under 
a strong personal government ; Germany was disappointed in 
her hopes for national unity ; Italy was again under her old 
rulers ; and Austria had successfully put down revolts in her 
own capital, in Hungary, Bohemia, and Italy. Such was the 
state of affairs in 1851. Yet we shall see that, as after the 
Revolution of 1830, the new ideas had gained ground. It 
was the beginning of constitutional government in several of 
the European states. The Holy Alliance " was riddled through 
and through." 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Europe from 1831 to 1851. — France under Louis Philippe: Political 
Parties. Agitation for Extended Suffrage. Attempts on the King's 
Life. Dissatisfaction with his Foreign Policy. Egypt. The King's 
Avarice. His Growing Unpopularity. — Efforts for Reform : Guizot. 
Lamartine. Thiers. The Peform Mass Meetings. — Revolution of 
1848 : Violence of the Movement. The Socialists. Louis Blanc. Suc- 
cess of the Party of Order. — The Republic established : The National 
Workshops. — Louis Napoleon : His Election as President. — Ger- 



EUROPE AFTER 1851 529 

many: Revolutionary Movements. Popular Demonstrations in Ber- 
lin. The New Policy of Prussia. Metternich Overthrown. — The 
Meeting of the Frankfort Parliament : Its Failure. — Italy : Revolu- 
tionary Movements. Temporary Success. — Reaction ; France: Napo- 
leon's Schemes. The Coup d'etat of 1851. Napoleon, Emperor of 
the French. — Italy : The Defeat of Charles Albert. — Germany : 
The Unpractical Character of the National Assembly. Its Dissolu- 
tion. — Austria and Hungary : The Bohemian and Hungarian Re- 
volts. Their Suppression. — Conclusion. 



CHAPTER LXX 

EUROPE AFTER 1851 

Introduction. — There were two great questions left unan- 
swered by the Eevolution of 1848. These were (1) the question 
of Italian unity, and (2) the question of German unity. Much 
of the history of the next twenty years is taken up with events 
which bore on the settlement of these questions. A third 
matter of importance which began to concern the European 
powers soon after the year 1851, and which to this day con- 
tinues to absorb their attention, is the Eastern problem, relating 
to the European possessions of Turkey. The first great Euro- 
pean war after 1851 arose from this issue. 

The Outbreak of the Crimean War. — The weakness of Tur- 
key was well known. We have seen that years before, the 
Sultanas vassal, Mehemet Ali, had defeated the Turkish gov- 
ernment in three wars, and was in a fair way to making what 
disposal he liked of the Sultan's dominions, when the great 
powers intervened on behalf of Turkey. Many thought that 
the time would soon come when the Turkish empire would fall 
to pieces, and it was a matter of great interest who should 
obtain the largest share of the spoils. Nicholas I., of Kussia, 
was especially interested in this matter. He had even hinted, 
while on a visit to England, that the condition of the "sick 
man," that is, the Turkish empire, promised to give England 



530 GENERAL HISTORY 

and Russia an early chance to divide up the Turkish territo- 
ries. He was anxious for an exrcuse for war with Turkey. He 
found one in the policy of the Turkish government in the mat- 
ter of the holy places of Jerusalem. The Greek and Roman 
monks Avere quarreling over privileges of worship in the 
Holy Land, and especially over the possession of the key to 
the Holy Sepulcher. The Greek Christians possessed the key, 
but Napoleon III., urging the existence of a prior agreement, 
prevailed on the Sultan to restore it to the Roman Catholics. 
The Czar now assumed a hectoring attitude toward Turkey, 
and finally demanded a protectorate over all the Greek Chris- 
tians in the Sultan's domains. The refusal of the Sultan was 
made by Nicholas the occasion of war. On the Sultan's side, 
however, were France, who had got him into the trouble, and 
whose emperor was anxious for war as a means of adding to 
his power, and England, because her interests in the far East 
would be endangered if Russia gained control of Turkey. 
Austria and Prussia were alarmed at the aggressions of Rus- 
sia, but they remained neutral. Russia, therefore, had to 
contend single-handed against France, England, and Turkey, 
who were afterwards joined by the little kingdom of Sardinia. 
The Crimean War and its Results. — Russia declared war 
against Turkey in 1853, and in the following spring the West- 
ern powers declared war against Russia. Russia first invaded 
the Turkish provinces in the Balkan Peninsula. This 
alarmed Austria, for Russian control of the Danube was a 
menace to her own power. Accordingly she demanded that 
Russia should at once evacuate the Danubian principalities, 
threatening war in the event of a refusal. Nicholas at first 
paid no attention to this, but having failed to gain a foothold 
in the provinces, and finding that Austria was very much in 
earnest, he withdrew his forces from the region, which was 
then occupied by Austrian troops. The allies planned to at- 
tack Russia on two sides at once. A fleet was sent into the 
Baltic Sea with a view to threatening St. Petersburg, and an 
army was directed against the Crimea on the northern coast 



EUROPE AFTER 1851 531 

of the Black Sea. The northern expedition failed, and the 
Crimea became the seat of the war, the great object being the 
capture of the fortified city of Sebastopol. An allied army of 
French, English, and Turks landed on the western coast of the 
Crimea, in Septeinber, 1854, and defeated the Russians a few 
days later at the river Alma. The way now lay open to Se- 
bastopol, and the siege, one of the longest and bloodiest in 
modern times, was begun. On October 25, 1854, was fought the 




Siege of Sebastopol 



indecisive battle of Balaklava, famous for the heroic but fruit- 
less charge of the British cavalry, and on November 5, 1854, 
occurred the defeat of the Russians in the battle of Inkermann. 
Winter now set in, and the allies had to rely on the slow and 
painful methods of a siege. They had not prepared for this, 
and the sufferings of troops from hunger and cold were intense. 
Toward spring they attempted to take the Russian redoubts 
by storm, but the city and its outworks had been fortified by 
the great engineer, Todleben, and the attacks failed. After a 
long bombardment, however, the chief redoubts that protected 



532 GENERAL HISTOKY 

the city were taken, largely tliroiigli the valor of the French, 
and Sebastopol, after a siege of eleven months, fell into the 
hands of the allies. This decided the war. Nicholas had 
died (March 2, 1855) and was succeeded by Alexander II., who 
consented to a treaty. 

The Peace of Paris (1856). — The war was concluded by the 
Peace of Paris (J\rarch 30, 1856), by which Kussia gave up her 
claim to be the sole protector of the Christian subjects of the 
Sultan (who thenceforth were to be under the joint protection 
of the powers), restored to Turkey the important fortress of 
Kars in Armenia, and gave to the Turkish province Roumania, 
a strip of territory at the mouth of the Danube. The integrity 
of the Turkish empire was guaranteed, and the passage of the 
Danube was free to the ships of all nations. Russia, moreover, 
was not to have the exclusive control of the Black Sea. France 
had taken the chief part in the war, and she received the chief 
credit for the results. Napoleon III. realized his aim of mak- 
ing his empire respected, and for some years France held the 
leading place in Europe. 

Sardinia. — Victor Emmanuel II., who had succeeded Charles 
Albert on the Sardinian throne, was liberal as a ruler and 
had all his father's zeal for the cause of Italian independ- 
ence. In trying to gain that end he showed far more than 
his father's ability. He chose as his chief minister the able 
statesman, Cavour, whose object was not only to advance 
the interests of Sardinia, but to secure the unity and free- 
dom of Italy. We have seen that the Sardinians joined 
the allies against Russia in the Crimean War. This was 
done by the advice of Cavour, who thought that it would 
bring Sardinia forward in European politics, and help her to 
throw off the Austrian yoke. His plans were aided by the 
neutrality of Austria during the Crimean War; for, Avhile that 
power had made an enemy of Russia and done nothing to 
deserve the good will of the allies, Sardinia found herself on 
the side of the successful party and in a better position in 
case she should ask favors. 



EUROPE AFTER 1851 533 

Louis Napoleon and Cavour. — The cause of Sardinia was also 
aided by the designs of Napoleon. It was his ambition to 
make France supreme in southern Europe. Just when France 
and Sardinia joined hands is not certain, but it is known that 
Napoleon asked the Sardinian minister, in 1855, " What can I 
do foL* Italy ? " At the congress of the powers which con- 
cluded the Peace of Paris in 1856, Cavour laid before the rep- 
resentatives of the other nations his case against Austria. 
Nothing was done then, but it was soon evident that Napoleon 
III. was ready to take up the Italian cause. Early in the year 
1858 a member of a Roman secret society, named Orsini, made 
a plot against the life of Napoleon. By denouncing this plot 
Cavour increased the French emperor's good will toward him. 
There was a meeting between Cavour and Napoleon at Vosges, 
in 1858. Napoleon would not listen to Cavour 's plan for 
Italian unity because it was thought injurious to the pope. 
He wished a confederacy to be formed of which the pope 
should be a member. Cavour saw that, after all, the main 
thing was the expulsion of the Austrians from Italy, so he fell 
in with Napoleon's plan. In the event of success France was 
to acquire Savoy and Nice. 

The War of Italian Independence. — After this France remained 
apparently friendly to Austria, although Napoleon's designs 
were suspected. Sardinia, on the other hand, began to prepare 
for war. A European congress was proposed in view of the 
danger, but Austria opposed this because she did not care to 
have her misgovernment in Italy exposed. Alarmed at the 
warlike preparations of Sardinia, Austria finally sent an ulti- 
matum to that kingdom demanding the reduction of its army 
to a peace footing. This Sardinia refused, and war followed. 
Napoleon thereupon informed Austria that he would consider 
the crossing of the river Ticino between Lombardy and Pied- 
mont as a declaration of war against France. As a result, 
France, as well as Sardinia was now at war with Austria, and the 
latter power had not a single ally in Europe. Napoleon an- 
nounced that he would free all Italy. The campaign of the 
Colby's gen. hist. — 34 



534 GENERAL HISTORY 

French was completely successful. The Austrians were driven 
from Lombardy ; the principalities of the Austrian rulers broke 
out in revolt, and E,ome was in the hands of the French. On 
June 4, 1859, the Fi-ench won the battle of Magenta, and about 
three weeks later the Austrians were defeated with heavy loss 
at Solferino. The result of this success was to bring Italy 
as completely under the influence of France as it had been 
under the influence of Austria. But Napoleon did not com- 
plete the conquest. He had gained almost all that he wanted, 
and Prussia was now threatening to interfere. It was not to 
his interest to carry on the war longer, and he had no mind 
to continue it merely for the sake of the Italians. 

The Terms of Peace. — At Villafranca a truce was formed 
between France and Austria, and on November 10, 1859, the 
peace was determined at Zurich. This treaty gave Lombardy 
to France, who ceded it to Sardinia; allowed Austria to re- 
tain Venice; and agreed that Italy should become a con- 
federacy with the pope as its president. Napoleon received 
as the price of his services Nice and Savoy from Sardinia. 
The results of the war were by no means satisfactory to 
Cavour, by Avhom Napoleon's failure to complete the libera- 
tion of Italy was regarded as a breach of faith. Moreover, 
it Avas a serious blow to his hopes when he found that Aus- 
tria was allowed to retain Venice and the district east of the 
Mincio, known as the Quadrilateral from the four fortified 
cities which it contained. 

The Unification of Italy. — From 1859 to 1871 the work of 
uniting Italy under the house of Sardinia went steadily on. 
The plan for a confederation of which the pope was to be the 
president failed; for to the northern states, which had been 
governed by the Austrian princes, was given the right to 
decide for themselves what should be done with them. They 
decided upon annexation to Sardinia. In the south the im- 
portant kingdom of Naples and Sicily was still governed by 
a Bourbon prince. Sardinia did not wish to bring on an- 
other great war by expelling the tyrant. Her object, however. 



EUROPE AFTER 1851 



535 



was gained through the efforts of the patriot Garibakli, who 
started up a revolt in Sicily and took possession of the island, 
then passed over to Naples and overthrew the tyrant. This 
was done without the consent 
of Sardinia, but that kingdom 
profited none the less from its 
results. About the same time 
trouble with the papal states 
had led to the sending of a 
Sardinian army into the pope's 
dominions, and the annexation 
of the greater part of them to 
Sardinia. Garibaldi, after his 
success in Naples and Sic- 
ily, saluted the Sardinian 
king as King of Italy, and by uaribalui 

a vote of the people Naples 

and Sicily joined Sardinia. A parliamenlr of united Italy was 
opened in 1861, but ten years passed before unity was com- 
plete. 




SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Europe after 1851. — Introduction: Questions still undecided. Ital- 
ian Unity. German Unity. Tlie Eastern Question. — Tlie Outbreak 
of the Crimean War : Quarrel of Monks over the Holy Sepulcher. 
Nicholas I. and the Sultan. Russia declares War against Turkey. 
France, England, Turkey, and Sardinia against Russia. — The Cri- 
mean War and its Results : The Attitude of Austria. The Russians 
invade the Balkan Peninsula but are obliged to withdraw. The 
Northern Campaign of the Allies. The Campaign in the Crimea. 
The Battle of Balaklava. The Battle of Inkermann. The Siege of 
Sebastopol. Its Capture. — The Peace of Paris. Its Chief Provi- 
sions. — Sardinia : Victor Emmanuel II. Statesmanship of Cavour. — 
Louis Napoleon and Cavour : Napoleon's Alliance with Italy. — The 
War of Italian Independence : The Battle of Magenta. The Battle 
of Solferino. — The Terms of the Peace : Italian Unity not yet se- 
cured. — The Unification of Italy : The Policy of Annexation. Gari- 
baldi. Sardinia acquires Naples and Sicily. 



CHAPTER LXXI 

THE FOUNDING OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE 

The Schleswig-Holstein Question. — The duchies of Schleswig 
and Holstein had long been united under a single duke, but 
upon the failure of heirs to its ducal line the government of 
the duchies passed into the hands of the Danish king, who, 
however, was required to rule them separately from Denmark. 
The principle was firmly established that the two duchies 
should never be separated, although Holstein was a vassal 
state of Germany, and Schleswig of Denmark. In 1846 it was 
evident that the male line of the Danish kings would soon be 
extinct, and the heir to the Danish throne traced his descent 
through the female line. In the duchies, however, by law, the 
female line could not succeed to the throne. They therefore 
demanded local independence. The sympathies of the German 
people were wholly with Schleswig and Holstein, and when the 
Danish king tried to incorporate the duchies with Denmark, 
the diet of the German confederacy sent troops to their de- 
fense. But in the reaction that followed the Eevolution of 
1848, an arrangement favorable to Denmark was made. Not to 
go into the details of the question, which is very complicated, 
it need merely be said that Denmark persisted in her plan 
against the independence of the duchies until Austria and 
Prussia resorted to force. The allied army of Austria and 
Prussia occupied the duchies in 1864, and, after a brief but 
sharp conflict known as the Danish War, they were taken 
from Denmark and left to the disposal of Austria and Prussia. 

The Rivalry of Austria and Prussia. — For several years after 
the Eevolution of 1848, Austria continued to be the leading 
state in Germany, and Prussia underwent many humiliations, 
but with the accession of King William I. of Prussia, the con- 
dition of affairs began to change. Prussia now adopted a more 
spirited policy. She showed her independence by refusing to 

536 



THE FOUNDING OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE 537 

take the Austrian side in the war with France and Sardinia. 
Bismarck became the minister of William I., and began to 
carry out a far-reaching scheme for. exalting the power of 
Prussia. In the face of persistent opposition he reorganized 
and increased the army, and in the direction of Prussia's for- 
eign policy he plotted steadily against the interests of Austria. 
Having increased the military strength of the Prussian army, 
he felt that she was fit to cope with her great rival, and he 
cast about for a good pretext for war. He found this pretext 
in the dispute which arose over Schleswig-Holstein. It was 
agreed that the duchies should be occupied jointly by the Aus- 
trians and the Prussians, and later, at the so-called Gastein 
Convention, that Holstein should be governed by Austria, and 
Schleswig by Prussia. He soon professed to find that Austria 
was unfaithful to this agreement and complained to the Diet. 
He was bent on incorporating Schleswig-Holstein with Prussia, 
while Austria wished to leave the question to the decision of 
the Diet. This was a popular move on the part of the Aus- 
trians, but Bismarck determined to offset it by a proposal still 
more likely to receive popular favor. Declaring that Austria 
had violated her agreement in the matter of Schleswig-Holstein, 
he proposed that the government of Germany should be reor- 
ganized on the basis of popular representation. He proposed 
the calling of a convention to be elected by the vote of the 
people. Thus step by step the breach was widened between 
the two Powers. Austria finally ordered the assembly of Hol- 
stein to declare what form of government they preferred. 
When Prussia denounced this as a violation of the Gastein 
agreement, Austria appealed to the Diet against her. The Diet 
took the side of Austria, and Prussia declared war. Several 
of the German states sided with Austria. 

The War of 1866. — Earely has there been a war so quickly 
completed and so decisive in results. It is known as the six- 
weeks war. The Prussian armies were ready for instant action. 
In a few days the states that had joined Austria were required 
to disarm, and a large Prussian force moved into Bohemia, 



538 GENERAL HISTORY 

where the main army of the Austrian s had gathered. King 
William and his general Von Moltke left Berlin on June 30, 
and on the 3d of July the Prussians fought the battle of 
Sadowa or Koniggratz, completely routing the Austrians. By 
the 20th of July Prussia was able to dictate peace. 

Results of the War. — Schleswig-Holstein was ceded to- Prus- 
sia. Venice, the last stronghold of Austrian power in Italy, 
was given to King Victor Emmanuel, who had aided Prussia 
in the war. Treaties between the German states were formed, 
resulting in the establishment of a north German confedera- 
tion with Prussia as its head. Thus a new German union was 
formed around Prussia, and Austria lost her leadership in Ger- 
many. There was now a central government for Germany, 
and a law-making body elected by the vote of the people. 
Complete German unity was now only a question of time, and 
in the new union the principles of constitutional government 
were soon firmly established. The effect on Austria herself 
was good. In 1867 a long-standing dispute with Hungary was 
settled by a compact which made the Austria-Hungarian em- 
pire a double state united in the person of the emperor, the in- 
dependent local government of Hungary being acknowledged. 

Napoleon III. and Prussia. — Napoleon III. saw with alarm 
the rapid rise of Prussia, which was now supplanting France 
in the position of the leading state of Europe. He tried to 
obtain from Prussia some cessions of lands on the Rhine, and 
he tried to extend his territory in another direction by the 
purchase of Luxemburg from Holland. In both these points 
he failed through the opposition of Prussia. Angered by 
these reverses, Napoleon was ready for war on the slightest 
pretext. About tliis time the Spanish people rose against 
their queen (Isabella), and established a constitutional govern- 
ment, electing King Amadeus to the throne. But before this 
the Spanish parliament offered the crown to Prince Leopold, 
of Hohenzollern, a relative of the Prussian king. The re- 
lationship was so slight that his candidacy was not at all 
likely to strengthen the power of Prussia, but France never- 



THE FOUNDING OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE 



539 



theless seized upon it as a ground of objection. She de- 
manded the withdrawal of Prussia's consent to Leopold's 
candidacy. To this King William assented, but France went 
further, and required that he should promise that under no cir- 
cumstances should Leopold ever accept the crown of Spain. 
King William refused to agree to this, and this refusal was 
viewed by Napoleon as a justification of war. The real cause 
of war, however, was the fact that it was desired by both 
countries. Napoleon wished to check the demand for more 
liberal government by a brilliant war policy. His people, who 
were completely deceived as to the military condition of 
France, and were over-confident as to the result of the war, 
welcomed it as a chance to restore their country to its high 
place in Europe. Moreover, Bismarck secretly favored war, 
and did what he could to make reconciliation impossible. 

The Franco-German War. — Space will not permit a full ac- 
count of the military events of this great conflict. Napoleon 
had planned to invade Germany, but 
his scheme was thwarted by the 
rapidity of the German movements. 
Operations began early in August, 
1870. In the battle of Weissenburg, 
on August 4, the French were de- 
feated; their invading army turned 
back, and German troops marched 
into France. Two days later the 
French army under Marshal Mac- 
Mahon, who had won his fame at the 
battle of Magenta, was defeated, and 
another victory was won by the Ger- 
mans on the same day. Now the 
entire German army entered France. 
French were driven in from all quarters toward Sedan, and 
there on September 1, 1870, the decisive battle of the war was 
fgught. The result of it was that the French army of 84,000 
was surrendered, and the Emperor Napoleon yielded his sword 




K.Mi'EKUK William 



At last the forces of the 



540 GENERAL HISTORY 

to King William. AVhen the news of these calamities reached 
Paris, a republic was proclaimed and a provisional government 
was formed. The Germans marched on Paris and laid siege 
to the city. In the early days of the war a large French army 
had been shut up in the city of Metz, which now surrendered. 
The siege of Paris went on until January 28, 1871, when, 
baffled in all efforts to break through the Prussian lines, the 
beleaguered armies surrendered. 

The Results of the War. — In the winter of 1870, a new form 
of government was established in Germany by treaties with 
the southern German states, and northern and southern Ger- 
many were united into an empire under the king of Prussia. 
King William was proclaimed Emperor of Germany in the 
palace of Versailles, January 18, 1871. As to France, the 
final terms of peace were very severe. She was obliged to 
give up to Germany part of Lorraine, and the province of Al- 
sace, and to pay an indemnity of five billion francs. In March, 
1871, there was a great communist uprising in Paris, against 
the authority of the French Assembly. The insurgents began 
a new reign of terror, but the forces of the Assembly took 
Paris in May, after much fighting, during which the insurgents 
burned many buildings. A new constitution was finally 
adopted, and the third French Republic was firmly estab- 
lished. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Thk Founding of the German Empire. — The Schleswig-Holstein Ques- 
tion : Relations between the Duchies and Denmark. The Interven- 
tion of Austria and Prussia. — The Rivahy of Austria and Prussia: 
Bismarck's Pohcy. The Increase of the Army. Quarrel between 
Austria and Prussia. — The War of 1806 : The Battle of Konig- 
gratz. — Results of the AVar : Prussian Gains. Venice given to 
Victor Emmanuel. The North-German Confederation. The Aus- 
tria-Hungarian Monarchy. — Napoleon III. and Prussia : Napoleon's 
Jealousy of Prussia. The Candidate for the Spanish Throne. — The 
Franco-German War : German Victories. Sedan. Metz. — The Re- 
sults of the War : The German Empire. France loses Alsace- 
Lorraine. The War Indemnity. The Communists. 



CHAPTER LXXII 



ENGLAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 



Reforms. — After the overthrow of Napoleon, England, like 
the other countries of Europe, pursued a reactionary policy 
opposing all attempts at reform at home, and casting in the 
weight of her influence with the despotic monarchies of the 
continent; but on the death of Lord Castlereagh in 1821^, Can- 
ning assumed the di- 
rection of foreign af- 
fairs. His policy was 
liberal and steadily 
opposed to the designs 
of the Holy Alliance. 
It was his outspoken 
warning that deterred 
the European monar- 
chies from taking part 
with Spain against her 
re volte d America n 
colonies. He recog- 
nized the independence 
of these colonies, and 
boasted that he had 
''called the New World 
into existence to re- 
dress the balance of 
the Old." In inter- 
nal affairs also a lib- 
eral policy began to 
bear fruit. 

The passage of the Catholic Emancipation Act in 1829 and 
the Reform Bill in 1832 have already been mentioned. The 
persistent opposition of the Tories, or, as they were now called, 

541 




542 GENERAL HISTORY 

the Conservatives, to the latter measure, was unavailing, and 
the right to vote was extended to a vast section of the popula- 
tion that had never before possessed it. Another great reform 
measure was the abolition of slavery in the British colonies 
in 1833 as a result of the efforts, extending over many years, 
of a band of earnest reformers, the leaders of whom were 
Granville Sharp, Wilberforce, and Clarkson. Other impor- 
tant reforms were the improvement of the poor laws, the 
extension of local rights of self-government in the towns, and 
the advancement of popular education. But progress was 
slow and moderate, and the more radical demands of the vio- 
lent party known as " Chartists " were not granted, in spite 
of the latter' s threatening outbreaks. 

A very sweeping reform, which was carried into effect about 
the middle of the century, was the repeal of the corn laws. 
These laws imposed heavy duties on imported grain for the 
purpose of protecting the English producer. For many years 
there had been opposition to this policy, for England was es- 
sentially a manufacturing country, and the advantage of cheap 
food to those engaged in the industries was thought to out- 
weigh that of protection to the landed classes. In the forties 
the leader in the agitation for the repeal of the corn laws was 
Richard Cobden, who was greatly aided by the eloquence of 
John Bright. The party became powerful, and in 1846 the 
corn laws were repealed, thus committing England definitely 
to the policy of free trade. 

The English in India. — In the eighteenth century France 
had been a dangerous rival of England in India, but in the 
reign of Louis XV. her power declined, and through the mili- 
tary skill and statesmanship of Lord Clive the British power 
was established in India on a strong foundation. The British 
dominions were greatly increased during the administration 
of the Marquis of Wellesley (1798-1805) in India, whose vigor- 
ous policy, combined with the victories of his brother, Sir 
Arthur Wellesley (afterward the Duke of Wellington), greatly 
strengthened the British rule. In the years that followed, 



ENGLAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 543 

one province after another was absorbed in the British terri- 
tory, but in 1857 occurred a movement among the natives 
which for the moment threatened the destruction of Enghmd's 
Indian empire. This was the famous Indian mutiny. 

The Indian Mutiny (1857). — This arose from the fanatical 
hatred and distrust among the Hindus and Mohammedans of 
India toward the British, who were thought to be planning 
the overthrow of the native religions. The British govern- 
ment had tried to repress several practices sanctioned by long 
custom and invested with religious veneration. They did this 
in the interest of a higher civilization. Thus they abolished 
the Hindu custom of burning widows at the funerals of their 
deceased husbands. The immediate occasion of the outbreak 
was the report that the cartridges used by the Sepoy or native 
troops in the Indian service were greased with the fat of ani- 
mals to touch which was regarded as sacrilegious by the 
natives. The insurrection was planned with the greatest se- 
crecy, and the British were taken unawares. A brutal massacre 
of women and children took place at Cawnpore. The British 
inhabitants of Delhi were murdered. Lucknow sustained a 
terrible siege, and was relieved by the arrival of General 
Havelock just in time to save it from destruction. But when 
the English recovered from their iirst surprise, they gradually 
suppressed the rebellion. The province of Oude was recon- 
quered, and a cruel vengeance taken upon the rebels. The 
government of India was now transferred from the East India 
Company to the Crown, and in 1877 Queen Victoria of England 
assumed the title of Empress of India. 

The Afghan Wars. — The British had great difficulty in main- 
taining peace along their frontiers. On the north the war- 
like tribes of Afghanistan gave them continual trouble, and 
in 1838 war broke out between England and the Afghans. 
The English tried to occupy the country with inadequate 
forces, and suffered a terrible reverse on retreating through the 
Kliyber Pass (1842), where their entire army was cut to pieces. 
But another British force was sent into the country and took 



544 GENERAL HISTORY 

vengeance on the natives. The Afghan ruler allied himself 
with the English, but after his death his son and successor 
sided with the Russians. At last an affront offered to the 
British embassy furnished the occasion for another Afghan 
war (1878-1881). Under General Roberts the English were 
successful, and installed Abdurrahman Khan (1880) as Ameer, 
who has remained generally faithful to the English alliance. 
The English interest in this Afghan matter is due to the fact 
that Russia has gradually extended her boundaries southward 
with the design of controlling the approaches to India. In 
1885 the two countries seemed to be on the point of war, but 
it was averted by an agreement between them in accordance 
with which the northern boundary of Afghanistan has been 
determined. jSTevertheless, the conflicting ambitions of the 
Russian and British empires in this region, and the neighbor- 
hood of these two great Powers, still remain sources of con- 
stant apprehension. 

England and Ireland. — The Irish hatred of English rule was 
the product of long centuries of oppression. In addition to 
difference of race there was difference of religion; for while 
the native Irish population were almost wholly Roman Catho- 
lic, the English were members of the Anglican church, or 
Protestant dissenting bodies. Successive settlements in Ire- 
land by English immigrants had given the best lands to the 
alien population. The legislation of the eighteenth century 
was full of the most stringent enactments against the Irish 
Catholics. They were not only excluded from all honors and 
offices, but were obliged to pay tithes for support of a Prot- 
estant Established Charch, which they hated. The law 
against their holding office was removed, as we have seen, by 
the Catholic emancipation act of 1829. But this was only one 
of many grievances. The agitation for disestablishing the 
' Irish Protestant church went on until, under the leadership of 
Mr. Gladstone in 1869, the act of disestablishment was passed. 

A far more serious object of agitation, and one which is the 
occasion of party strife to this day, was the repeal of the union 



ENGLAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 



545 



between England and Ireland. A conspicuous leader in this 
movement was Daniel O'Connell, who aimed at self-govern- 
ment for his country. One of tlie grievances which has sharp- 
ened this agitation for home rule has been the land question. 
The Irish lands were in the hands of absentee owners, who 
left the management of their estates to agents or middlemen. 
These agents, whose remuneration depended upon what they 
got out of the land, wrung as much as possible from the ten- 
ants. The laws were in the interest of the landowners, and 




House of Parliament 



if a tenant was unable to pay the rent he was liable to imme- 
diate eviction ; that is, to be turned out of doors with his family 
at the risk of starvation. In the bad condition of the country 
the competition for land was so keen that the tenant would 
engage to pay an exorbitant rent. Accordingly he often fell 
into arrears, and the landowner could legally claim the entire 
crop, leaving the tenant only his bare subsistence. The result 
of this was a wretched method of farming. The condition of 
the peasantry was so bad that the failure of the potato crop 
in a single year caused the starvation of thousands of people. 



546 GENERAL HISTORY 

Cruel evictions were followed by bloody revenges, and lawless- 
ness prevailed. At last the English government listened to 
complaints and tried to improve the condition of the tenants. 
A land act was passed in 1860, but did little good. An- 
other land law in 1870 attempted to aid tenants in the pur- 
chase of land. Other acts looking to this end were afterwards 
passed, but without checking the agitation for home rule. In 
1870 a home rule party was formed, under the leadership of 
Isaac Butt. Later a far abler and more conspicuous leader 
was Charles Stewart Parnell. The policy of this party was 
to obstruct parliamentary legislation by every possible means, 
in order to compel attention to the Irish demands. Their 
representatives in Parliament carried out this plan with con- 
siderable success. 

Home Rule Bills. — In 1886 Mr. Gladstone, the head of the 
Liberal party and the leading statesman of Great Britain, 
accepted the principle of home rule for Ireland and introduced 
in Parliament the first home rule bill. A section of his party, 
known as the Liberal-Unionists, opposed this policy, and 
voted with the Conservatives. The measure was defeated. 
In 1890 a scandal seriously damaging the reputation of Mr. 
Parnell led to a rupture in the party, the majority demanding 
his retirement from the leadership. Mr. Parnell refused to 
retire, and a hot fight followed between the factions. Mr. Par- 
nell died in October, 1891, but the factional strife continued. 
Nevertheless Mr. Gladstone brought in a second home rule 
bill in 1893, and it passed the House of Commons; but it 
was rejected by a large majority in the House of Lords. In 
1898 under the Conservative ministry of Lord Salisbury, a 
local government act was passed which, though by no means 
satisfactory to the Home Rulers, introduced many long desired 
reforms in the local administration of Ireland. 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

England in the Nineteenth Century. — Reforms: Canning's Pohcy. 
The Abolition of Slavery and Other Reforms. The Repeal of the 



EUROPE SINCE 1871 547 



Corn Laws. — The English in India : Lord Clive. The Marquis of 
Wellesley. — The Indian Mutiny: Its Causes. Its Immediate Occa- 
sion. The Suppression of the Mutiny. — The Afghan Wars : The 
British Defeat at Khyber Pass. The Second Afghan War. The 
Afghan Question. — England and Ireland : The Grievances of Ire- 
land. The Act of Disestablishment. The Land Question. The 
Home Rule Party. — Home Rule Bills: Mr, Gladstone and Home 
Rule. Division in the Home Rule Party. The Local Government 
Act of 1898. 



CHAPTER LXXIII 

EUROPE SINCE 1871 

The Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878). — The Crimean War 
had weakened Turkey's grasp on the Balkan Peninsula, but she 
was still able to grind several of the Christian provinces in 
that region under her corrupt and oppressive government. In 
1875 the two provinces, Bosnia and Herzegovina, whose popu- 
lation was mainly Slavonic, revolted against Turkish rule, 
receiving aid from their kinsmen in Servia and Montenegro. 
Austria, Germany, and Russia interposed on behalf of these 
oppressed peoples, but could obtain from the Turkish Sultan 
nothing but empty promises of reform, and England refused 
to join them in the adoption of forcible measures against 
Turkey if the Sultan persisted in refusing redress. The reason 
for her action was her desire to maintain Turkey as a bar- 
rier to Russian encroachments, for she feared that the dis- 
memberment of Turkey might imperil the British possessions 
in India. 

In 1876 the eyes of the civilized nations were opened to the 
real nature of Turkish rule by evenj]s in Bulgaria, where, on 
the suppression of a revolt, the Turks committed the atrocious 
"Bulgarian massacres." Even after this, England refused to 
side Avith the Powers; and though she gave the Turkish gov- 
ernment to understand that no aid was to be expected from 



548 GENERAL HISTORY 

her, the Sultan appears to have counted on lier assistance. 
At all events the Turkish government obstinately rejected all 
the demands of the Powers for the establishment of a better 
government in the Balkan provinces. 

Russia finally took up arms as the champion of tlie provinces, 
and as the other Powers remained neutral, she and Turke}?- 
fought it out alone The war began in April, 1877. The 
Russians invaded Turkish territory and seized Shipka Pass, 
an important strategic position, but the Turks, under their 
able general, Osman Pasha, doggedly resisted, and for a time 
the Russians were checked; but in December, 1877, after 
severe fighting, they captured Plevna, and a Turkish army of 
44,000 men fell into their hands. In the following month 
they took Adrianople, and were ready to marcli on to Con- 
stantinople. In the east the Russians were also successful, cap- 
turing the important fortress of Kars. Turkey was now ready 
for peace, which was signed at San Stefano, Marcli 3, 1878. 

The Congress of Berlin (1878). — The terms of the treaty of 
San Stefano were very disadvantageous to Turkey. Her 
power in the Balkan Peninsula was seriously impaired. But 
England came to her aid in a secret treaty. England was 
determined to check Russian ambition, and it seemed for a 
time as if those two Powers would go to war; but the danger 
was arrested by the Congress of Berlin, where representatives 
of all the great Powers met to settle the points at issue. 
The decisions of this Congress have directed the international 
affairs of Europe to this day. England's policy triumphed, 
and the corrupt and declining power of Turkey was propped 
up. But the Turkish influence in the Balkan Peninsula was 
greatly lessened. The independence of Servia, Roumania, 
and Montenegro, was acknowledged; Bosnia and Herzegovina 
were occupied by Austrian troops and were ultimately incor- 
porated in the Austria-Hungarian monarchy; and Bulgaria 
became self-governing. Russia was obliged to content her- 
self with far less than she had obtained in the treaty of San 
Stefano. 



EUROPE SINCE 1871 549 

The Congress of Berlin did not solve the difficult problem 
arising from the decay of the Turkish Umpire. This problem, 
familiarly known as the Eastern Question, remains to-day a 
menace to the peace of Europe. The main point in it is the 
fact that sooner or later the Turks will lose their hold on their 
remaining European territory, and that the great Powers of 
Europe are each eager for a share, or fearful lest one may 
gain so much as to endanger the balance of power. Eng- 
land and Russia, especially, watch jealously all movements 
affecting the affairs of Turkey ; for the former fears for the 
safety of her distant colonial possessions, and the latter, 
always eager for territorial expansion, is longing for Con- 
stantinople. 

England and Egypt. — The next important event in European 
history was the settlement of the Egyptian difficulty. The 
Khedive, or Viceroy, who ruled the country under the authority 
of the Turkish Sultan, mismanaged the finances and incurred 
an enormous debt to the European powers. In 1876 he was 
obliged to give over the control of the revenue to a European 
commission, but his opposition to the pDlicy of the Powers and 
his refusal to pay the interest on the debt led to his enforced 
abdication in favor of his son, Tewfik Pasha. This caused a 
revolt of the natives headed by Arabi Pasha, a colonel in the 
army, who opposed the foreign interference in Egyptian affairs. 
The Khedive, Tewfik Pasha, tried to avoid giving offense to 
the Powers, but this aroused the hatred of the nationalist 
party, and Arabi Pasha became the chief power in the state. 
England now determined to interfere, under the Khediver's 
authority. An English fleet under Admiral Seymour bom- 
barded Alexandria, and an English army under Sir Garnet 
Wolseley crossed the isthmus of Suez and advanced into the 
interior. At Tel-el-Kebir the English forces met a large body 
of insurgents and defeated them in several bloody battles 
(September 13, 1882). Since this time Egypt, though nomi- 
nally a dependency of Turkey, has really been under English 
control. English troops have been garrisoned there, and the 

COLBV'S GEN. HIST. 35 



550 GENERAL HISTORY 

policy of the state has been directed by the representatives of 
the English government. 

England and the Transvaal. — At the other extremity of 
Africa the English policy of colonial expansion received a 
severe check at the hands of the sturdy Dutch settlers known 
as the Boers. These people had formerly occupied Cape 
Colony, but when England secured this region and began to 
send colonists there, the Boers moved out and founded a new 
state, known as the Transvaal or the South African Republic. 
In 1877, however, the English government declared the an- 
nexation of this state to Cape Colony. The Boers protested, 
and when this failed resisted by armed force. On February 
27, 1881, they attacked the British at Majuba Hill and drove 
them from their position. At last the difficulty was adjusted 
in 1884 by an arrangement recognizing the right of the Boers 
to complete self-government, but securing to England the direc- 
tion of the foreign affairs of the republic. 

There has since, however, been serious trouble in the Trans- 
vaal, arising from a provision of the constitution which with- 
holds from the foreign element in the population privileges 
enjoyed by the native Boers. The Uitlanders, as these 
unnaturalized citizens are called, were very numerous and 
energetic. They Avere largely Englishmen, and complained 
that the government was in the hands of a small and ignorant 
minority. They planned a general uprising, January 6, 1896, 
but in the meanwhile occurred the foolish and premature raid 
of the police of the British South African Company under 
Dr. Jameson. The raiders were defeated by the Boers and 
the whole movement to secure a new constitution promptly 
collapsed. 

The Partition of Africa. — A study of the accompanying map 
will show the respective limits of the European governments 
in Africa. It is impossible here to describe the numerous 
international arrangements that have defined the boundaries 
of these territories. In 1890 and 1891 important compacts 
fixed the boundaries of their respective colonies, between 



EUROPE SINCE 1871 551 

England and Germany, England and France, and England 
and Portugal. The most extensive and rapidly expanding 
territories are held by France and England. These two 
Towers have several times seemed on the point of coming to 
blows over conflicting claims to African lands. Italy down 
to 1896 was following an aggressive African policy and had 
secured a sort of protectorate over Abyssinia; but this was re- 
pudiated by the Abyssinian king, Menelek, whose army routed 
the Italians in the battle of Adowa witli great loss, Marcli 1, 
1896. After this Italy became a less important factor in Afri- 
can affairs. 

The Situation in Africa in 1898. — Down to 1898 the gen- 
eral results of the partition left France in control of some 
3,300,000 square miles of territory. Great Britain 2,300,000 
square miles, and Germany 925,000 square miles. Thus 
France was, in point of actual area, the chief sharer of the 
African spoils, but since the barren region of the Sahara makes 
up a large part of this territory the worth of her African pos- 
sessions does not correspond to their extent in square miles. 
In 1898 public attention was drawn especially to the rivalry 
between France and England on the upper Niger and on the 
upper Nile. The Niger question was settled by the confer- 
ence at Paris in the summer of 1898. The dispute in the east 
was far more serious. England as the protector of Egypt had 
determined to recover the provinces of the Soudan, which had 
been wrested from Egyptian control by the Mahdist revolt, and 
for two years the Anglo-Egyptian expedition had been pushing 
its way southward along the course of the Nile, building a rail- 
way as it went. This expedition met with marked success, 
defeating the dervishes in two great battles, first at the river 
Atbara (April, 1898), and finally (Sept., 1898), at Omdurman, 
adjacent to Khartum ; but at the moment of triumph news 
was brought to General Kitchener that a French force under 
Major Marchand was occupying Fashoda, a point on the White 
Nile further to the south. The demand on the part of the 
English that Major Marchand should at once withdraw was 



552 GENERAL HISTORY 

couched in terms which offended French pride and for the 
moment war between the two Powers seemed imminent. But the 
French yiekled the point and war was averted. It was pointed 
out that the ulterior aims of the two great Powers were thor- 
oughly antagonistic, for England had long conceived the idea 
of a great trans-continental empire extending from the Cape 
to Cairo, and united by a railway line which would open com- 
munications from one end of the continent to the other, while 
France was said to be eager to open her line of communica- 
tions directly across the continent from east to west. 

Turkey. — The war of 1877 and 1878 between Kussia and 
Turkey left the latter power in a weakened condition, and her 
power for evil was greatly curtailed by the Congress of Berlin. 
During the years 1895, 1896, and 1897 the main interest of 
Turkish affairs has centered in the relations of the Porte with 
(1) Armenia, (2) Crete, and (3) Greece. 

The Armenian Massacres. — The origin of the trouble in 
Armenia is obscure. A party was there organized to with- 
stand Turkish tyranny, and some people have thought that 
the members of this party went too far and needlessly x^ro- 
voked acts of violence on the part of the government. Others 
threw the whole blame on the Turkish government. But 
whatever was the origin of the trouble, there can be no doubt 
that the course of the government was cruel in the extreme. 
Massacres of the Armenian peasants began in the Sasun dis- 
trict in 1894. Later an attempt to levy taxes on the Armeni- 
ans having been repulsed, Turkish regular troops were sent 
into the disaffected districts and took an atrocious revenge. 
The representatives of the European Powers in Constantinople 
now drew up a scheme of reforms which they insisted that the 
Sultan should put into effect. He agreed to do so, but delayed, 
and in the meanwhile the massacres continued. Great Britain 
now began to advocate forcible measures, but finding some 
of the other Powers, especially Eussia, were opposed to this, 
reluctantly agreed to a further delay. Early in 1896 it was 
declared on an investigation by the representatives of the 



EUROPE SINCE 1871 553 

European states that up to that time 25,000 Armenians had 
been massacred. In the summer of 1896 a riot in Constanti- 
nople was followed by the massacre or expulsion of about one 
lialf of the Armenian residents of Constantinople. At last the 
Turkish government was obliged to yield to the demands of the 
Powers. It opened negotiations with the Armenian revolution- 
ists and early in 1897 some reforms were introduced. 

The Cretan Difficulty. — As a result of the Berlin Congress, 
the Turkish government agreed to grant Crete the right of 
self-governmeut. The Cretans were dissatisfied with the way 
in which this promise was carried out, and the island was 
for several years in a state of confusion. Finally the Sultan 
withdrew the chief terms of his agreement. The islanders 
reluctantly submitted, but when their Christian governor was 
recalled and a Mohammedan sent in his place, they broke out 
in revolt. The European powers followed the same policy 
as in dealing with the Armenian question. They made the 
Sultan promise reforms and then permitted him to delay in 
carrjdng them out. The Cretans, suspecting bad faith, again 
broke out in revolt. The difficulty was complicated by the 
sympathy of Greece with the Cretan cause. The Greeks, 
moreover, were not satisfied that the Cretans should secure 
the right of self-government, but they wished Crete to be 
united with Greece. This naturally angered the Turks. 
Greece and Turkey now began massing their armies on the 
border of Thessaly. 

The Graeco-Turkish War. — On April 9, 1897, a slight engage- 
ment occurred between the Turks and a body of Greek irregu- 
lars who had crossed into Macedonia and attacked the Turkish 
position. On April 18, Turkey declared war, claiming, how- 
ever, that Greece was the aggressor. The Turks were greatly 
superior in numbers as well as in discipline. They were 
successful from the first, driving the Greeks back from the 
mountain passes and successively dislodging them from their 
positions at Larissa, Pharsalus, and Dhomokos. The Greek 
fleet, of which much had been expected, accomplished nothing. 



554 GENERAL HISTORY 

The war was over before the end of April, and on September 
19, 1897, a preliminary treaty of peace was signed. 

The forces of the Greeks were ill-disciplined and badly di- 
rected, and the conduct of the war reflected little credit upon 
the nation. Turkey, as a consequence of it, gained a firmer 
position in international affairs. When the peace negotiations 
began, she demanded a considerable portion of Greek territory, 
together with a large indemnity. The powers opposed the dis- 
memberment of Greece, bat permitted what was called a rectifi- 
cation of the frontier, giving to Turkey certain advantageous 
military positions on the northern boundary. As to the indem- 
nity, the Powers undertook the control of the Greek finances 
in order to insure its payment. 

Thus Greece had utterly failed in its objects. Crete still 
continued as a dependency of the Porte, and the Cretans were 
obliged to content themselves now with such a measure of 
self-government as the Porte might be forced to grant through 
the pressure of the Powers. In 1898 Crete was under the con- 
trol of the admirals commanding the fleets of the protecting 
Powers, who were governing the island provisionally until 
some plan for its self-government could be devised, and a 
governor could be chosen. The candidate most acceptable to 
the islanders was Prince George of Greece, but the Turkish 
government objected to him. On September 6, the Turks, 
enraged at the appointment of a Christian to an office in the 
custom house, made an attack upon the native Christians and 
the British troops in Candia. Seventeen British soldiers were 
killed and fifty wounded, and a general massacre of Christians 
followed, in which seven hundred were killed. It appeared 
that the only way to restore peace to Crete was to withdraw 
the Turkish troops. 

The Powers demanded that this should be done, and in 
November the evacuation of the island by the Turks was com- 
pleted. Toward the end of the month it was announced that 
Prince George of Greece was to be the High Commissioner of 
Crete. He assumed office on December 2, 1898. 



EUROPE SINCE 1871 555 

Spain and her Colonies. — Reference has been made in an 
earlier chapter to the unwise policy of Spain in the govern- 
ment of her dependencies, and the great loss that she sustained 
as a result of the revolt of her American colonies in the first 
quarter of the nineteenth century has already been mentioned. 
Nevertheless, down to the year 1898, Spain possessed a colonial 
empire with an area of 405,455 square miles, and a population 
of between nine and ten millions. Of these colonial posses- 
sions the most important were the Philippine Islands, Cuba, 
and Puerto Eico, their population alone being over nine millions. 
The Spanish colonial methods caused discontent among the 
natives of these islands, and in Cuba and the Philippines this 
discontent took the form of open rebellion on several occa- 
sions. In Cuba the insurrections were frequent, the most 
important being those of 1849-51, 1854, 1868-78, and 1895-98. 
The early rebellions were suppressed by the most cruel meas- 
ures ; but that of 1895 was more formidable, and the Spanish 
troops who were landed in Cuba in great numbers seemed 
unable to make headway against the insurgents. The latter 
insisted upon complete independence, refusing to accept any 
compromise, for their past experience had made them distrust- 
ful of Spain's promises of reform. In the meanwhile Spanish 
misgovernment in the Philippines had provoked a revolt there 
of an equally serious nature. It broke out in August, 1896, 
and was at first unsuccessful ; but later the insurgents showed 
such strength that Spain found it necessary to attempt con- 
ciliation. Accepting the Spanish promises, the insurgents laid 
down their arms ; but later, alleging the complete failure of 
the government to keep its word, the rebels renewed the Avar. 
Such was the state of affairs in Cuba and the Philippines at 
the beginning of the year 1898. 

Spanish- American War; Causes. — The sympathies of the 
people of the United States were almost wholly with the 
Cuban insurgents. The war in Cuba was conducted in a man- 
ner most revolting to a people of a civilized nation. On the 
material side, too, the people of the United States suffered 



556 GENERAL HISTORY 

injury by this prolonged conflict so near the American borders. 
There were powerful motives impelling the United States to 
interfere, but the government steadfastly adhered to a neutral 
policy. All efforts on the part of the United States govern- 
ment to put an end to hostilities by friendly mediation proved 
fruitless ; and as time went on, the people of the two countries 
were further exasperated — the Americans because of Spain's 
refusal to listen to American protests ; the Spanish because 
money and arms were secretly sent from the United States to 
the Cubans. 

In February, 1898, the matter seemed as far from an adjust- 
ment as ever, and on the fifteenth of that month occurred an 
event which made war inevitable. The United States battle- 
ship Maine, lying in the harbor of Havana, was blown up, and 
260 officers and men were killed. An investigation was made 
by a board of inquiry, which reported, on March 28, its belief 
that the explosion was due to outside causes. On April 19, 
Congress adopted joint resolutions, declaring the independence 
of Cuba, demanding that Spain withdraw her troops, authoriz- 
ing the President to enforce this demand, and disclaiming any 
intention on the part of the United States to exercise sover- 
eignty over Cuba except for its pacification. War immedi- 
ately followed. 

Events of the War. — The President issued a call for 125,000 
volunteers on April 23, and the number of the regulars was 
raised to 61,000. The Key West squadron, under Admiral 
Sampson, was sent to Cuban waters to maintain a blockade. 
On April 25, Commodore Dewey left the port of Hongkong, 
with ordei*s to proceed to the Philippines and attack the Span- 
ish fleet lying in Manila harbor. It was at this point that 
the first great victory of the war was won, on May 1. With- 
out the loss of a single man, the American fleet completely 
destroyed the Spanish vessels, killing between three and four 
hundred officers and men, and wounding nearly twice as many 
others. The United States now prepared to dispatch military 
expeditions to take possession of the islands. 



EUROPE SINCE 1871 557 

In the meanwhile the mustering in of the volunteers went 
on 5 and the expedition to Santiago was set on foot, a Spanish 
fleet under Cervera having anchored in the harbor of that city, 
and the American fleet under Admiral Sampson and Commo- 
dore Schley having taken up its station at the entrance. On 
July 3, while the American troops were occupying the heights 
overlooking Santiago, Cervera's fleet attempted to escape from 
the harbor, and was attacked by the American fleet. The result 
was the destruction or capture of all the Spanish vessels, with 
a loss of about 600 Spanish killed, and about 1500 officers and 
men captured. On the fourteenth of July, Santiago and the 
eastern end of Cuba were surrendered, and a little later Gen- 
eral Miles began to occupy Puerto Rico. In August prelimhia- 
ries of peace were signed, providing for a commission to prepare 
a final treaty. 

The Peace of Paris, 1898. — The peace commission, composed 
of representatives of Spain and the United States, met at 
Paris on October 1. After long discussion a treaty was framed 
by which Spain gave up all claim to Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the 
Philippines, and agreed to a prompt evacuation of these islands. 
The United States agreed to pay Spain the sum of $20,000,000 
within three months after the ratification of the treaty. Spain 
further ceded to the United States the island of G-uam in the 
Ladrones. The two powers mutually relinquished all claims 
for damages. The treaty was signed in Paris on December 
10, 1898, and ratified early in 1899. 

Austria-Hungary. — Few nations of the world can show such 
a variety of populations as Austria-Hungary. The antagonism 
between the different races has been the chief political diffi- 
culty with which the empire has had to contend. This antago- 
nism was exhibited in a very marked manner during the years 
1897 and 1898, when the two great divisions of the empire 
were discussing the renewal of the Ausgleich, that is, the com- 
pact by which Austria and Hungary agreed to contribute their 
-respective quotas to the financial support of the empire. Its 
term was ten years, which expired in 1897; and when the 



558 GENERAL HISTORY 

question of renewal arose, it was found to be impossible to 
come to any agreement as to the proper share which each 
should have of the burden. The matter was complicated by 
the so-called language dispute, which arose from the attempt 
of the government to introduce the use of the Czechish lan- 
guage in official and public business in Bohemia, and also to 
have it taught in the schools. The opposition of the Germans 
to these measures led to disgraceful rioting in the Austrian 
parliament, and it seemed impossible to etfect a compromise. 

Latin America. — The Spanish colonies in South America be- 
gan their struggle for independence during the Napoleonic wars, 
when Spain was under French control. Buenos Ayres sepa- 
rated from Spain in 1810. The independence of Venezuela, 
Colombia, and Peru was won largely through the efforts of 
Simon Bolivar. Upper Peru was named Bolivia in his honor. 
Mexico, after several revolutions, received its independence in 
1821. The independence of Brazil was recognized by the king 
of Portugal in 1825, after which it was ruled by its emperor, 
Uom Pedro L, Avho was succeeded by Dom Pedro II. The 
latter, after a long reign, was forced to abdicate as a result 
of the revolution of 1890, which transformed Brazil into a 
republic. 

Australia. — The opening of Australia to l>ritish settlers fol- 
lowed the discoveries of Captain Cook (1769-1777), who gave 
the name of New South Wales to the colony wdiicli was first 
occupied. The earlier colonists were convicts, sent out from 
England to the penal colony known as Botany Bay, but as the 
resources of the country became known, free settlers followed, 
and the better lands were soon taken up by an enterprising 
and increasing population, immigration being especially stim- 
ulated by the discovery of gold in 1851. The main interest 
in the recent history of the colonies has centered in the efforts 
to secure some form of union. A constitution establishing a 
federal government for the Australians was submitted to the 
people of the separate colonies in 1898, but failed to secure the 
requisite number of votes. 



EUROPE SINCE 1871 559 

Canada. — In 1791 Canada, which had been ceded to Great 
Britain in 1763, was formed into the two provinces of Upijer 
and Lower Canada. This condition continued till 1841, when 
the two provinces were united. In 1867 the Dominion of Can- 
ada was constituted, comprising at first Upper Canada or 
Ontario, Lower (Canada or Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New 
Brunswick, and later Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince 
Edward Island. By this arrangement each province was left 
to manage its local affairs while the central authority was 
vested in the Dominion Parliament and in a governor general 
as a representative of the crown. 

Oriental Peoples. — As we have stated at the outset, the 
scope of the present work is for the most part limited to the 
history of European races, and little has been said of Oriental 
peoples except when they have come into direct relations with 
the peoples of the west. We have seen that on several occa- 
sions Europe was threatened by eastern races. The battle of 
Chalons in 451 a.d. checked the westward movement of the 
Huns. The battle of Tours in 732 a.d. turned back the tide 
of Arab conquest. Later, the Magyars or Hungarians, a Tura- 
nian people allied to the Huns, kept Europe in constant terror 
by their incursions, until finally they established themselves 
in the country which now bears their name. In the thirteenth 
century took place the great Mongolian invasion under Gen- 
ghis Khan, who established a vast empire in central Asia, 
conquered the region to the north of the Black Sea, and 
defeated an army of Germans who came to the defense of 
eastern Europe. The Mongols withdrew from Europe, but, as 
we have seen, dominated eastern Russia for a period of two 
centuries. This Mongol empire rapidly declined, but Tamer- 
lane, a descendant of Genghis, revived it and at the beginning 
of the fifteenth century wrested Asia Minor from the Ottoman 
Turks. But Tamerlane's empire soon fell to pieces, while the 
Ottomans, recovering from their defeat, continued the course 
of conquest which resulted in the fall of Constantinople (1453) 
and the founding of the Ottoman Empire in Asia Minor and 



560 GENERAL HISTORY 

Europe. An account has been given of the relations between 
Turkey and the European powers, and of some aspects of the 
so-called Eastern Question. Before describing another and 
more recent aspect of that question, namely, that which per- 
tains to the activity of the European powers in the Far East, a 
few words in regard to China and Japan are necessary. 

Early in the thirteenth century Genghis Khan led his Mon- 
gols into China, and after a long period of warfare, a great 
Mongol empire was established there under Kublai Khan, the 
grandson of Genghis. This empire lasted for about a century, 
after which a line of native rulers, known as the Ming dy- 
nasty, held the throne for nearly three hundred years. The 
sovereign power was then seized by the Manchu Tartars, who 
have retained it ever since, in spite of serious opposition in 
parts of the empire. In 1850 this opposition took the form of 
a formidable revolt, known as the Taiping Rebellion, which 
had for one of its objects the restoration of the throne to native 
rulers. The rebels gained control of a large part of the coun- 
try, and the war dragged on for many years, but in the end the 
government succeeded in suppressing the revolt (1865). Dur- 
ing the nineteenth century the most important feature of 
Chinese history has been the opening of China to foreign 
trade. Treaties with Great Britain (1842) and with France 
and the United States (1844) prepared the way for commer- 
cial intercourse, and since that time the number of ports open 
to foreign trade has greatly increased. 

The Mikados or rulers of Japan claim an unbroken descent 
from the hero Jimmu Tenno, who is said to have founded the 
dynasty in the year 660 b.c. After the seventh century a.d. 
the Mikados appear to have lost much of their power, and the 
military leadership passed into the hands of, the Shoguns or 
generals, who finally gained control of (dvil affairs as well, the 
Mikado being sovereign merely in name. 

After centuries of internal confusion and civil war, Japan 
developed a sort of feudal system in which the local authority 
was in the hands of the daitnios or lords, who acknowledged 



EUROPE SINCE 1871 561 

the Shogun as their feudal overlord. This system became 
firmly established in the seventeenth century and lasted till 
1868, when as a result of a revolution the Mikados regained 
their lost power. In the sixteenth century, Portuguese sailors 
visited Japan, and in 1549 St. Francis Xavier introduced 
Christianity, but although the faith spread rapidly at first, it 
was checked by a course of violent persecutions. Commercial 
intercourse with the civilized nations of the west began in 
1854, when Commodore Perry formed a treaty which opened 
certain ports to United States trade. Since then Japan has 
made commercial treaties with many nations and broken 
wholly with her old exclusive policy. In internal affairs also 
she has greatly -improved. Feudalism was abolished soon 
after the overthrow of the Shogunate, and new institutions, 
framed on western models, were established. In 1889 Japan 
became a constitutional monarchy. 

China and Japan. — War broke out between China and Japan 
in 1894 as a result of their conflicting interests in Korea. The 
hostilities began July 25, when a Japanese squadron defeated 
the Chinese fleet; and the war ended in May, 1895, when 
China was forced to make peace in order to avert the impend- 
ing capture of Pekin. The great inferiority of the Chinese 
fleet and army in all matters pertaining to discipline and 
organization was shown in a striking manner. Japan received 
a large war indemnity, and secured the recognition of the inde- 
pendence of Korea. She rose to the first rank among Oriental 
nations, and earned the respect of the Western powers as 
a strong and progressive state. 

China and the Powers. — One of the most important problems 
in European politics is the so-called "Far Eastern Question," 
involving the destiny of the vast empire of China. In Janu- 
ary, 1898, it was announced that Germany had gained posses- 
sion of the harbor Kiao-Chau, with a tract of land adjoining. 
It appeared from this that Germany was determined to share 
in the rivalry which had been going on among the European 
powers for many years in connection with the acquisition of 




562 GENERAL HISTORY 

Chinese territory. France had gained a foothold in Tonquin ; 
Great Britain, in Hongkong ; and Russia, in Manchuria. This 
cession to Germany was followed on March 28 by the announce- 
ment that Eussia had secured from China a grant of the im- 
portant military point, Port Arthur, and the neighboring city 
Talienwan. Great Britain and France also secured important 
concessions, the foriner obtaining the island of Wei-Hai-Wei 
and a district in the neighborhood of Hongkong, and the latter 
a bay on the southern coast of China. It seemed as if the 
partition of China had begun; and many thought that Great 
Britain had shown weakness and vacillation in permitting 
these concessions to foreign powers, and in taking part in the 
scramble herself, since it had hitherto appeared to be her 
policy to maintain the integrity of China. But it was pointed 
out that in the lands newly acquired by Germany and Eussia, 
the policy of the '^ open door " was to be maintained, granting 
freedom of trade to the merchant vessels of otlier nations ; and 
this, it was said, was all that the British government had a 
right to expect. On the other hand, it was urged that the 
policy of other nations than Great Britain would not, in the 
long run, be that of the " open door " ; for, in the government 
of their colonies, the other powers had always shown a desire 
to confine the trade so far as possible to trade with the home 
country. These events gave rise to a very extended discus- 
sion involving the future of the Chinese empire and the undue 
extension of the power of Eussia. The rivalry of the different 
nations brought np many irritating questions, and led to the 
prediction that a great European war would some day take 
place in that quarter of the globe. 

The Czar's Peace Proposal. — In the midst of all this talk of 
European wars arising from the rivalry of the powers in China 
and in Africa, there appeared on August 24, 1898, the remark- 
able proclamation of Nicholas II., Czar of Eussia, favoring a 
gradual disarmament by the European powers. He said that 
the maintenance of the huge armies and navies of Europe was 
pressing with increasing weight upon the people ; and that 



EUROPE SINCE 1871 563 

since the object of this policy was to maintain peace, it 
seemed as if the result could be obtained by simpler and less 
burdensome means. He therefore proposed to all the govern- 
ments, whose representatives were accredited to the imperial 
court, the assembling of a conference to discuss this matter, 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW 

Europe since 1871. — The Russo-Tarkish War : Turkey and the Balkan 
Provmces. England's Attitude. The Bulgarian Massacres. Rus- 
sian Successes. — The Congress of Berlin: The Balkan Provinces. 
The Eastern Question. — England and Egypt: The Dual Control. 
The Egyptian War. The English Occupation. — England and the 
Transvaal : The English Attempt to Annex the Transvaal. Its Fail- 
ure. Political Difficulties. The Jameson Raid. — The Partition of 
Africa : England and France. The Kitchener Expedition. The 
Italians in Africa. — The African Situation in 1898 : The Shares of 
the Powers. The Niger Question. General Kitchener's Successes. 
The Fashoda Question. — Turkey. — The Armenian Massacres : 
Turkish Atrocities. The Attitude of the Powers. — The Cretan 
Difficulty : The Grievances of the Cretans. The Attitude of the 
Powers. The Sympathy of the Greeks. — The Graeco-Turkish War : 
Military Operations. Defeat of the Greeks. The Terms of Peace. 
The Cretans. The Massacre at Candia. Prince George in Crete. — 
Spain and her Colonies : The Revolt in Cuba. The Revolt in the 
Philippines. — The Spanish-American War ; Causes : Sympathy 
with the Insurgents. Mediation Fruitless. The Destruction of the 
Maine. The Declaration of War. — Events of the War. The Battle 
of Manila. The Destruction of Cervera's Fleet. — The Peace of 
Paris : The Terms of Peace. — Austria- Hungary. Racial Antago- 
nisms. Dispute over the Ausgleich. The Language Dispute. — 
Latin America. — Australia. — Canada. — Oriental Peoples. — China 
and Japan: The War of 1894-95. Its Results. — China and the 
Powers : Acquisition of Chinese Territory by the Powers. Germany. 
Russia. Great Britain. France. The Far Eastern Question. — The 
Czar's Peace Proposal : His Reasons. A Peace Conference Pro- 
posed. 



INDEX. 



a as in ale. 
a as in hat. 
a as in care, 
a as in arm. 
a as in ask. 
a as in awe. 
e as in eve. 
6 as in m6t. 
e as in her. 
e as in thgre. 
i as in light. 
I as in tin. 
o as in old. 
5 as in n6t. 



o = German oe. 

ii = French and German ii. 

u = French eu. 

■e, €h as in chaos. 

D = ttl, as in this. 

g as in gem. 

g as in get. 

G = German g. 

H = strongly aspirated h. 

K = German oh. 

n like ni in minion. 

N = the nasal sound in French. 

n = ng. 

S = z. 



PAGE 
Aah'mes (Ama'sis) I., King of Egypt . 29 
Abbas'sids, dynasty of ... . 258, 259 
Abderrahman (abd-er-raH'man) . . 258 

Abdurrahman Khan 544 

Abhorrers, origin of 429 

Aboukir (a-boo-ker'> Bay, Napoleon 

defeated at 487 

Abraham, .Jews descended from . . 44 

divine mission of 255 

Abraham, Plains of, battle at . . . 455 
Absulute monarchy, in Rome . . .178 

rise of 324, 333-340 

in England 335, 336 

in France 339 

in Spain 340 

in Prussia 438 

A'bu-bek'r, successor of Moha.nmed . 256 

Abu-Sim'bel, shrine of 31 

Aby'dos, temple at 30 

Abyssin'ia, Italian protectorate over . 551 
Aehae'a, Greece called . . . . 117, 160 

Aehae'an League 116 

revolt of 150 

Aehae'ans, Greek tribe 73 

Achaeans, geographical location of . 78 

Aehae'ns, son of Helleii 73 

A€hirie§, Greek hero 75 



PAGE 
A' ere, captured 272 

Napoleon at 487 

Acrop'olis, buildings of 102 

Act of Settlement 434, 451 

Act of Supremacy 361 

Ac'tium, battle of 168 

Adda River 485 

Addison, English poet 435 

Ad'ela, wife of Stephen 299 

A'do-wa, battle of 551 

Adrian VI., Pope 355 

Adriano'ple, battle of 185 

treaty of .- 511 

Russians capture 548 

Adriatic Sea, Pompey tiees across . 163 
Aegates (e-ga'tez) Islands, battle of . 144 
Aegean (e-ge'an) Sea, Greek colonies 
in, conquered 65 

islands of 72, 78 

Aegina (egi'na), conflict with Athens 94 

joins Achaean League 116 

Ae-gospot'ami, battle uf 107 

Aene'as, Tmjan hero 129 

Aene'id, Vergil's .... 50, note ; 171 
Aeo'lians, Greek tribe 73 

colonies founded by .78 

Ae'olus.son of Hellen 73 



566 



GENERAL HISTORY. 



PAGE 
Ae'quians, war with Rome. . . 135, 136 
Aeschines (6s'k!-neez), Greek orator . 122 
Aeschylus (6s'ki-lus), Greek drama- 
tist 103, 121 

Aetius (a-e'shi-us), Roman general . 194 

Aeto'lian League 116 

Aetolians, driven southward ... 77 

Afghan wars 543, 544 

Afghanistan', boundary of .... 544 
Africa, government of ancient na- 
tions in 22 

Phoenician settlements in . . . . 51 
Romans in ... . 143, 147, 148, 150 

Caesar's victory in 164 

Vandal kingdom in 193 

Mohammedanism in 256 

discoveries in 326 

partition of 550, 551 

Africa'nus, Scipio called 149 

Agamem'non, King of Mycenae . . 75 

Age, bronze 14, 15 

iron 14, 15 

stone 14, 15 

of Pericles 102 

Agesila'us, King of Sparta .... 109 
Agincourt (S-zhaN-koor') battle of, 308, 313 

Agnes of Meran 290 

Agni (ag'nee), Indian god 57 

Agrarian Law, passed 155 

Agric'ola, Roman general 175 

Agrigen'tum, captured 143 

Agrippi'na, wife of Claudius .... 174 

A'hab, King of Israel .39 

Ah'riman, Persian god 67 

Aistulf (Ts'toolf), King of Lombards . 215 

punishment of 219 

Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-la-sha-p61'), 

treaty of 407, 440 

congress at 506 

Ak'kad, region in Babylonia .... 38 

Akkadians 48 

Al'aric, Gothic chief .... 187, 188 

sacks Rome 188 

death of 190 

Alba Longa, capital of ancient Italy . 129 

chief community in Latium •. . . 132 

Albert II., Emperor of Germany . . 319 

Albi', French city 310 

Albigen'ses, crusade against . . 292, 310 

Inquisition against 367 

Al'boin, Lombard chief 210 

Albuquerque (al-boo-k6r'ka) .... 330 
Alcaeus (al-se'us), Greek poet . . .121 
Alcibi'ades, Athenian leader. . . . 106 

deposed 107 

Alcuin (al'kvvin), English scholar . . 227 



PAGE 

Alemanni (a-la-man'ne) . . . 184, 186 

Franks defeat 206 

Aleutian (a-lu'shi-an) Islands ... 15 

Al'e-iits, civilization of 15 

Alexander the Great 42 

conquests in India . . .61, 113, 114 

military genius of 112 

fouiiils Alexandria 113 

victories in Persia 113 

character of 115 

death of 115 

Alexander I., Czar of Russia . . . 494 
claims Duchy of Warsaw . . 502, 514 

death of 510 

Alexander II 532 

Alexandria, founded 113 

capital of Egypt 115 

Antony at 168 

capital of Patriarchate 230 

Napoleon attacks 487 

English bombard 549 

Alexandrine Library founded . . . 115 
Alex'is, cruel treatment of .... 448 
Alex'ius I., Emperor of East . 262, 264 
Alfred the Great, King of England . 247 
and the Danes ...... 247, 248 

character, work of 248 

Algiers (al-gerz'), campaign in . . . 512 

A'li, Arabian caliph 256 

Allah, god of Mohammedans . . . 255 

Al'lia River, battle near 137 

Alliance, Holy 305 

Quadruple 520 

Allod, defined 275 

Alma River, Russian defeat at . . . 531 

Al-ma'gro, conquests of 329 

Almeida (al-ma'e-da) 330 

Alphabet, Phoenician 52 

Greek 74 

Alps, Hannibal crosses 146 

Napoleon crosses 485 

Alsace (al-sas'), France acquires . . 401 

Germany regains 402, 540 

Allies expelled fioni 477 

threatened by Napoleon .... 490 

Alsace-Lorraine question 239 

Al Si-rat', bridge of 255 

Alva, Duke of 378-380 

Amade'us, King of Spain 538 

Amboise (6N-bwaz'), conspiracy of . 386 

Ambra'cian Gulf 71, 168 

Amenem'hat L, King of Egypt . . 28 

Amenemhat III 28 

Ameno'phis, King of Egypt .... 30 

America, Northmen settle in . . . 251 

discovery of 326, 327, 340 



INDEX. 



567 



PAGE 

America, origin of name 32s 

Revolutionary war in 462 

Spanish-American war in . . 555-557 
America, Central, Columbus ex- 
plores 327 

America, South, Columbus in . . . 327 
American colonies, Spanish .... 329 

strife over 440 

George III. loses ....... 455 

Ameiican Revolution, influence in 

France 462 

Amerigo Vespucci (a-ma-ree'go v6s- 
poot'chee) (Amer'icus Vespu'- 

cius), discoveries of 328 

Amiens (a'myaN'), peace of . . . .491 
Am'nionites, Hebrews conquer ... 45 

Amphip'olis, battle of 105 

Amsterdam, siege of 408 

Anab' asis, Xenophon's. . . . 108,122 

Anae're-on, Greek poet 121 

An'chorites, life of 233 

Ancient history 18-202 

divisions of 21 

Ancients, Council of 484 

Ancus Marcius, Roman king . , . 131 

Angles, Teutonic tribe 186 

invade Britain ...... 193, 246 

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 248 

Anglo-Saxon dynasty, restored . . . 250 

. end of 295 

Anglo-Saxons, kingdom in Britain . . 193 

converted 232 

unite under one leader 247 

Angouleme (6N-goo-lam'), Duke of . 507 

An'halt, Christian of 398 

Animal worship, in Egypt .... 32 
Anjou (ON-zhoo'), claimed by English, 302 

France acquires 303, 339 

Anjou, Duke of 389 

Anne Mortimer 308, note 

Anne, Princess, daughter of James II., 434 
Anne, Queen of England . . . 434, 435 
An-tirie§, Lesser, discovered . . .327 

An'tioch, capital of Syria 116 

capital of Patriarchate 230 

siege of 264, 265 

Anti'oehus III., King of Syria . . . 150 
Antoni'nus Pius, Roman emperor . . 177 
Anto'nius, Marcus. See Antony, 

Mark. 
Antony, King of Xavarre . . . 385, 387 
Antony, Mark, Roman consul . . .166 
appropriates Caesar's wealth . . .167 
Octavius, and Lepidus, Second 

Triumvirate 167 

governor of East 



PAGE 

Antony, Mark, defeated by Octavius . 168 

victory at Philippi 168 

death of les 

Aphrodi'te, Greek goddess . 119, note 1 

A'pis, worship of 32 

Apol'lo, Greek god 118, note 

oracle of, at Delphi 119 

Apostles, govern church 229 

Apulia (a-pU'le-a), Normans in . . .319 

Apulians, join Samnites 140 

Aquitaine (ak-we-tan'), English pos- 
session 302, 306 

French reconquer 313 

English sovereignty over .... 313 
Arabi Pasha (a-ra'bee pa-sha') . . . 549 
Arabia, home of Semitic race ... 17 

boundaries of 22 

conquest of 256 

Arabian Nights 259 

Arabian Sea, Indian boundary ... 56 

Arabs, race . . . . , 16 

threaten Christianity 17 

country of ......... 252 

civilization of ..... . 258, 259 

defeated at Tours 558 

Ar'agon, Christian state in Spain . . 339 

Arbe'la, battle of 113 

Arca'dins, Roman emper<.r .... 187 
Ai'chaugel, Russian seaport .... 444 

Archbishop, authority of 230 

Ar«hiro€hus, Greek poet 121 

Architecture, Egyptian 33 

Babylonian 42' 

in Athens 103 

during Justinian's reign .... 209 
Ar'chon, head of Athenian state . . 85 
Arctic Seas, discoveries in ... . 375 
Ar-eGp'agus, national council ... 85 

A're§, Greek god 118, note 

Ar'gives, aid Thebans 109 

Argop, Din'a-us in 74 

Argos, ascendancy of 79 

Dorians found 79 

Spartan war with 83 

A'rianism, defined 20ii 

Ariovis'tus, German chief .... 184 

Aristi'de§, ostiacized 94 

returns to Athens 99 

commander allied fleet 100 

Aristocratic party, Pompey leader of, 162 
Aristode'mus, xMessenian chief ... 83 
Aristogi'ton, conspiracy of .... 88 
Arist5m'ene§, Messenian revolt under, 83 
Aristoph'ane§, Greek dramatist , 103, 122 
Ar'istOtle, Greek philosopher . 122, 126 
I Armenia, Assyrians in 39 



568 



GENERAL HISTORY. 



PAGE 

Armenia, massacre in 552 

Aimin'ius (Hermann), Teutonic cl:ief, 172 

Army, in Egypt 32 

rule of, in Rome 178 

of Twenty Nations 499 

Arnulf of Bavaria 240 

Art, in ancient Asia and Africa ... 22 

in Egypt 28, 34 

in India 61 

in Persia 69 

in Greece 104, 123 

Artaxerxes (ar'taks-erks'eez), King of 

Persia 108 

Ar'temis, Greel? goddess . . . 118, note 
Arteraisiura (ar-te-mish'ium), Cape, 

Persian and Greek fleets at . . 96 
Arthur, nepliew of King John . 302, 303 
Arthur, Port, Russia acquires . . . 562 
Artois (ar-twa'), Count of .... 468 

Aryan race, described 16 

culture of 17 

conquest of India 56, 57 

home of original stock 181 

migration to Europe 181 

master of Europe 195 

As'calon, battle of 266 

As'culum, battle of 140 

Asherah, Phoenician goddess ... 53 
Ash'toreth, Babylonian goddess . . 43 

Phoenician goddess 53 

Asia, government of ancient nations 

in 21, 22 

kingdoms in 22 

Asia, Central, nomad tribes in . . . 22 

Mohammedans in 256 

Asia Minor, part added to Persian 

Empire 65 

Greek settlements in .... 78, 90 
Persian Empire established in . . 90 

Greek cities in 109 

Spartan victory in 109 

submits to Alexander the Great . . 112 

revolt in 164 

Seljuks overrun 260 

Mehemet Ali invades 520 

Tamerlane conquers 558 

Asia, Western, subject to Rome . . 159 

Assembly, in Spartan government, 79, 80 

National. See National Assembly. 

Popular, in Athenian government, 88 

Popular, in Roman government . 130 

of the Hundreds 131, 134 

of Tribes 134 

of the States-General 292 

of the Notables 463 

Assuan (as-swan'), Egyptian city . . 23 



PAGE 

Ass'ur, Assyrian god 43 

Assurban'i-pal, King of Assyria . . 40 

Assyrian Empire, first 39 

second 40 

Cyaxares destroys 64 

Assyrians, race 16 

civilization 17 

rising power of 31 

home of 36, 37 

capture Babylon 39 

kingdom overthrown 41 

religion 43 

demand tribute from Tyre and Sidon, 49 
Astar'te, Phoenician goddess, 50, note ; 53 
Astrakhan', annexed to Russia . „ . 443 
Astronomy of Babylonians .... 42 

Asty'ages, Median ruler 64 

defeated 65 

Atba'ra River, battle of 551 

Athe'ne, Greek goddess , 83, 119, note 

Athens, founded 74 

Ionian population in 78 

early history of 84, 85 

Oligarchy 85 

abuse of power by nobles .... 85 

laws of Draco 86 

constitution of Solon 86 

tyranny in 87, 88 

reforms of Clisthenes . . . . 88, 89 

democracy in 88 

ostracism 89 

rise of power in 90 

assists Ionian cities 91 

Persian war against 91, 92 

victory of Marathon 92, 93 

conflict with Islands of Aegina . . 94 

navy strengthened 94 

Themistocles 94 

Xerxes prepares to invade .... 94 

burned by Persians 97 

naval power of 99-102 

height of power 99-104 

Confederacy of Delos . . 99, 100, 104 

Pericles 101 

center of art and leaining . . 103, 1C8 

architecture in 103 

jealousy of power of 104 

Peloponnesian war .... 104-107 

aids Corcyra 105 

democratic principles of . . 104, 105 

truce with Sparta 105 

plague in 105 

joins alliance of Peloponnesian 

states 106 

Sicilian expedition 106 

surrender of 107 



INDEX. 



569 



PAGB 
Athens, alliance with Persia . . . .109 

alliance with Thebes Ill 

attempt to regain liberty . . . .116 

joins Achaean League 116 

Ath'os, Mt, Persian fleet at .... 91 

Xerxes at 95 

A'triura, defined 198 

Attica, Ionian state 78 

Dorians invade 85 

citizenship in 88 

At'tila, chief of Huns 194 

in Italy 195 

Auerstadt (ovv'er-stat), battle of . . 494 
Augsburg (owGs'boorG), peace of, 

348, 358, 399, 401 

Diet at 356 

decrease in population 402 

League of 410 

Augsburg Confession .... 356, 358 

Augurs, Roman priests 200 

Augustan line of emperors . , . .173 
Augustine, converts Anglo-Saxons, 231, 232 

converts Kent 246 

Augustus, Octavius rectives title . . 169 

title of Roman emperors .... 178 

Augustus, Roman emperor . . 170-172 

patron of literature 172 

Augustus the Strong, King of Poland, 446 
Aure'lian, Roman emperor . . 178, note 

Aure'lius, Marcus 177, 185 

Ausgleich, in Austria-Hungary . . . 557 

Auspices, taking 200 

Austerlitz, battle of 493 

Europe after 494 

Australia, colonization of 558 

Austria, claims jurisdiction over Swit- 
zerland 319 

Morgarten and Sempach .... 319 

Charles V 341-349 

acquires possessions in Italy and 

Netherlands • • • 414 

alliance with Russia 440 

opposes Russia 450 

Napoleon's victories . . . 485, 486, 497 

acquires Venice 486 

Napoleon attacks 490 

aids England against France . . . 493 

relinquishes Venetia 494 

in Congress of Vienna 502 

Holy Alliance 505 

league with Russia and Prussia . . 508 
power in Italy .... 508, 525, 527 
suppression of liberalism in . . . 509 
quells revolution in Italy .... 515 
rivalry with Prussia . . . 524, 536, 537 
i-evolt in Hungary 528 



537, 



PAGE 

Austria, war of Italian Independence, 
533, 

Schleswig-Holstein question . . , 

Austro-Prussian war . . . 

loses leadership in Germany 

Austria- Hungarian Empire 
Austria-Hungary, Huss in . 

empire formed 

different races in ... . 
Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), 
France gains 474, 486 

united to Holland 503 

Austrian Succession, war of . . 439, 454 
Avars, home of 218 

Charlemagne subdues 223 

Av'entine Hill, Roman settlements on, 131 
Aves'ta, Persian sacred book. ... 68 
Avignon (a-ven-yoN'), Holy See at, 292, 312 

Az5v', captured 444 

Az'tecs, Cortez conquers 329 



Ba'al, temple of 

Babylonian god 

Phoenician god 

Baal Melkarth, temple of . . . .48 

god of Tyre 

Baal Samen, Phoenician god .... 
Baalim, Phoenician divinity .... 
Baaltis, Babylonian goddess .... 
Babington, plans to release Mary 

Queen of Scots 

Babylon, culture in 3fi 

Assyrians capture 

description of 

destruction of 

fall of 

Alexander plans to make capital . 

capital of Syria 

Babylonia, divisions of 

reconquered by Sargon 

Second Empire 

Cyrus the Great conquers .... 

Babylonian calendar 

Babylonian captivity 

of Church ....... 292, 

Babylonians, civilization of . . 17, 37. 

home of 

early history 37, 

architecture of 

religion of 42j 

Ba€'€hus, Greek god .... 19, 
Bacon, Sir Francis, English author . 
Bac'tria, Medcs and Persians from . 

Zend language in 

Ba'den, reforms in 

Badr (Bedr), battle of 



41 

42 

65 

115 

116 

38 

40 

41 

47 

42 

47 

312 

,42 

36 

38 

42 

43 

124 

375 

64 

68 

523 

254 



570 



GENERAL HISTORY. 



PAGE 

Bagdad, capital of Abbassid Caliphate, 

258, 259 
Bahama Islands, Columbus discovers, 327 

Balakla'va, battle of .531 

Balboa, discovers Pacific Ocean . . 328 
Baldwin IV., Count of Flanders . . 269 

head of Latin Empire 270 

Baldwin V 299, note 

Bai-e-ar'ic Isles, Vandal colonies in . 192 
Balkan Peninsula, Russians invade . 530 

Turkish influence in 548 

Ball, John, preaching of 307 

Bannockburn, battle of 305 

Barbarians, new kingdom of . . 203, 204 
Barbary Coast, Christian captives at . 345 

Barnet, battle of 334 

Barons, revolt of 298 

settle in Ireland 301 

John's struggle with .... 303, 304 
Bastile (bas-tel'), taken . . . 465, 466 
Batavian Republic, Holland forms . 483 

Baths, Roman 202 

"Battle of the Nations" 500 

Bavaria, Louis the Bald obtains . . 237 

German duchy 2J0 

claims to Spanish throne .... 411 
Bavaria, Duke of, seizes Don au worth, 397 
Bavaria, Elector of, claims Austrian 

dominions 4S9 

Bavarians, threaten Franks .... 218 

defeated at Blenheim 412 

invade Austria 439 

Baylen (bi-ien'), battle of .... 496 
Becket, Thomas k. Archbishop . . . 300 

murdered 301 

Bedr, battle of 254 

Beggars, reform party in Netherlands, 378 

victories of 379 

Bel (Baal), temple of 41 

Bel'gae, home of 377 

Belgium, Jesuits in 367 

early history of 377 

Dumouriez driven from .... 476 

ceded to France 486 

Napoleon defeats Prussians in . . 501 

united to Holland 503, 513 

revolution in .... 513, 514, 518 

independence of 514 

France helps 520 

Belisa'rius 191, 208, 209 

Belshaz'zar, Babylonian king ... 42 
Beluchistan', Alexander the Great at, 114 

Bena'res, Buddha at 60 

Benedic'tines, agriculture of ... . 234 

Beneven'tum, battle of 141 

Bengal, Bay of, Indian bcmudary . . 56 



PAGE 
Berkeley Castle, Edward II., mur- 
dered at 306 

Berlin, Russians capture . . . „ . 441 

Napoleon enters 494 

revolt in 523, 524 

Congress of 548 

Berlin Decree - ... 495 

Bernadotte (b6r-na-d5t'), Crown 

Prince of Sweden 497 

Bero'sus, Babylonian priest .... 37 
Bible, Moeso-Gothic version of . . . 186 

translated into German 354 

Bill of Attainder 421 

Birds, The, Aristophanes' . . . .122 
Bishop of Rome, power of . . 230, 231 

Bismarck, policy of 537 

favors war 539 

Bithj n'ia, Hannibal in 149 

Black Country, Egypt called ... 23 

Black Death 306 

Black Prince 306 

Black Sea, Germans on 181 

Blake, English admiral 426 

Blanc, Louis, socialist 521 

Blenheim (bleii'im), battle of . . . 412 
Blois (blwa), Count of ... . 299, note 

Bloody Assizes 431 

Bliicher (blii'ker), Prussian general . 501 

Body of the Civil Law 208 

Boemund of Otranto, leads crusaders 263 
Boeotia (be-6'shi-a), founded ... 77 
Boeo'tians, driven to Central Greece . 77 
Boers, Dutch settlers in Africa . . . 550 

Boe'thius 2C8 

Bohemia, Slavs in 223 

Jesuits in 367 

Protestant revolt in ... . 397, 398 
Saxon invaders driven from . . . 400 

revolt of 528 

Prussian force in 5£8 

Czechish language in 558 

Bohemia, King of, elector for emperor, 319 
Boleyn (bool'in), Anne, Henry VIII. 

marries 361 

Bolivar, Simon, liberator of Bolivia . 558 
Bolivia, named after Bolivar . . . 558 

Bombay, Presidency of 62 

Bonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon 

Bonaparte. 
Bonaparte, Joseph, King of Naples 
and Spain .... 494, 496, 497, 498 

Louis, King of Holland 4^5 

Jerome, King of Westphalia . . . 496 
Louis Napoleon, President French 

Republic 523 

See Louis Napoleon. 



INDEX. 



571 



PAGE 
Bon'iface II., joins fourth crusade . 269 
Boniface VIII,, Pope 292 

struggle with Philip IV 311 

Book of Common Prayer 369 

Book of Exodus 44 

Book of Judges 49 

Book of the Dead 28 

Borodino (bor-o-de'no), battle of . , 499 
Borussi (Frussi), history of . . . .436 
BO§'nia, revolts in 547 

incorporated in Austria-Hungarian 

monarchy 548 

Bosporus, Roman capital on . . . . 180 

Bosworth, battle of 835 

Botany Bay, penal colony 562 

Both well, Mary, Queen of Scots, mar- 
ries 371 

Boule (boo'lay), in Athenian govern- 
ment 88 

Bonrbon, Cardinal of 393 

Bourbon, Constable of, joins Charles V. 342 

Bonrbon kings, recalled 500 

Bouvines (boo-ven'), battle of . . . 803 

Boyne, battle of 433 

Bra'bant, Maria Theresa's claims to . 406 

Brah'ma, Indian god 59 

Brahmanism, origin of 59 

doctrines of 59 

Brahmans, Indian priests 58 

Brandenburg, electors of . . 319, 435, 486 

Swedes driven from 437 

receives Pomerania 447 

Brazil, Portuguese in ..... . 380 

independence of 558 

Bremen, ceded to Hanover .... 447 

Brennus, Gallic chief 137 

Breslau (bres'lou), peace of ... . 439 
Bretigny (bre-ten-ee'), treaty of, 306, 813 

Briel (brel), captured 379 

Brienne', Napoleon studies at . . . 485 

Bright, Jolin 542 

Brin'disi, Children's Crusade at . . 271 
Britain, Caesar in 161 

Roman province 175 

Teutonic tribes settle in .... 186 

invaded by Angles, Saxons', and 
Jutes 198, 246 

ecclesiastical government .... 246 
Britannia, England called .... 195 
British Colombia, government of . . 559 
British Isles, in a state of block- 
ade 495 

British South African Company . . 550 
Britons, home of 192 

Germans aid 193 

Brittany, English driven out of . .318 



PAGE 
Brittany, annexed to France . . .336 

Bronze age 14, 16 

Bruce, Robert, King of Scotland . . 305 

Brunswick, revolt in 516 

Brunswick, Duke of. Manifesto of . . 472 

Brunswick, House of 451 

Brussels, Burgesses of, rescued . . . 379 
provisional government in . . . .514 

Brutus, Roman consul 133 

kills Caesar 165 

death of 168 

Buckingham impeached 418 

asssassinated 419 

Buddha (bood'da) reforms of ... 59 

life of 60 

worship of 60 

Buddhism, introduced into China . . 55 

rise of 59, 60 

spread of 60, 61 

Buddhists, division among .... 61 
Buenos Ayres, separates from Spain, 558 

Bulgaria, massacres in 547 

becomes self-governing 548 

Burgun'dians, German tribe .... 187 

invasions of 188 

kingdom of 192, 193 

Clovis conquers 207 

capture Joan of Arc 313 

side with France 314 

Burgundy, kingdom in France . . .241 

rival of France 337 

Charles V. claims 342 

France relinquishes 343 

France retains 344 

Burgundy, Duke of, alliance with 

England 314, 335 

Burial, in Egypt 32 

in Greece 125 

among Romans 202 

Burmah, Buddhism in 61 

Busentius River, Alaric buried in . . 190 
Bushmen, classification of .... 17 

Butt, Isaac, Irish leader 546 

Byron, Lord, aids Greeks 510 

Byzantium (bl-zan'shl-Ou)), captured, 100 

Roman capital 180 

See Constantinople. 

Cabot, John, explorations of ... . 328 

Sebastian, explorations of ... . 328 

Cabral, Alvares, Portuguese explorer, 380 

Cade, Jack, leads revolt 383 

Cadiz, founded 51 

pillaged 378 

Spanish fleet destroyed at ... . 382 
Cadmus, story about 52 



572 



GENEKAL HISTOEY. 



PAGE 

Cadmus, teachings of 74 

Caesar, Julius, leader of popular party, 160 

First Triumvirate 161 

Gallic campaign 161 

rivalry with Pompey 162 

crosses Kubicon 163 

ruler of Roman world 163 

civil ruler 164 

death of 165 

greatness of 166 

in Germany 184 

Cairo, obelisk of Heliopolis near . . 28 
capital Fatimite Caliphate . . * . 258 

Napoleon conquers 487 

Caj'etan, Italian scholar 353 

Cala'bria, Normans in 319 

Calais (ka-la'), English capture. . .306 

English retain 314 

English lose 370 

Calendar, Ba1>ylonian 42 

Greek 120 

Roman. 129 

Republican, in France 475 

Cal'icut, Portuguese at 330 

Calig'ula, Roman emperor .... 173 

cruelty of 174 

Caliphate, Abbassid 258, 259 

Spanish 258 

Fatimite 258 

Golden Age of 259 

Calonne', French minister .... 463 
Calvin (Chauvin), John, leader of Ref- 
ormation 364 

Calvinism, spread of .... 364, 365 

in France 384 

Cambrai {k5N-bra'), treaty of . . . 344 
Cambunian Mts., Greek boundary . 71 
Camby'ses, King of Persia . . 31, 64, 66 
Camil'lus, Roman dictator . . . 137, 138 

Campania, Scipio in 149 

Cumpo Formio, treaty of 486 

Canaan (ka'nan), Jews in 44 

Canada, ceded to Great Britain . . . 559 
Dominion of, constituted .... 559 

Canals of Babylonians 37 

Candia, Christians massacred in . . 554 

Can'nae, battle of 147 

Canning, English Foreign Secretary, 

507, 518 

Canos'sa, HenrylV. at 286 

Canterbury, Archbishopric of . . . 291 

Canute (Cnut), reign of 249 

Cape Colony, England secures . . . 550 
Cape of Good Hope, discovered . . 326 
Cape Verde, Portuguese at ... . 326 
Capet (ka-pa'), Hugh . . . .241,309 



PAGE 

Cape'tian kings in France . 241, 245, 310 
Capitoline Hill, Manlius at ... . 138 

Cappel', battle of 364 

Cap'ua, Hannibal at 147 

captured by Romans 147 

Caracal'la, Roman emperor . . 178, note 
Caravan route, between Egypt and 

East 252 

Carbona'ri, secret society . . . 508, 515 
Cari'nus, Roman emperor . . . 178, note 
Carloman, King of Franks . . . .218 
Carlovin'gians. See Carolhijians. 

Carlsbad, congress at 509 

Carlsbad Decrees 516, 517 

Carlstadt, religious reformer . . .354 
Carnot (kar-no'), French war minis- 
ter 477 

Carolin'gians, Frankish rulers . . . 213 

supplant Merovingians 215 

emperors of . . 228 

Europe under 235 

in Germany 239, 240 

in France 240 

return to power 241 

last of 241 

feudalism under 277 

Carthage, founded 50, note 

Phoenician colony 142 

destroyed 142, 151 

rivalry with Rome 143 

peace with Rome 144 

siege of 151 

Cartha5;in'ians,attack Greeks in Sicily, 141 

conflict wit Rome 142 

allies of Syi acusans 143 

driven from Spain 148 

Cams, Roman emperor . . . 178, note 
Caspian Sea, Germans migrate to . . 181 
Cassite dynasty, in Babylon .... 39 

Cassins, death of 168 

Caste system in India 58 

Castile (kas-tel'), Christian state in 

Spain 339 

Castlerea^h (kas-l-ra'). Lord . . . .541 
Catherine de' Medici (ni6d'e-chee). . 385 
prompts massacre of St. Bartholo- 
mew 389, 390 

Catherine of Aragon, wife of Henry 

VIII 360, 361 

Catherine II., the Great, of Russia, 

447, 449 
Catholic Emancipation Bill, . 517, 541, 544 
Catholic League formed . . . 387, 398 
Catbol'icism, Latin nations adhere to, 368 
Catholics, form Holy League . 357, 391 
persecution of 362 



INDEX. 



573 



PAGE 

Catholics and Protestants in Switzer- 
land 364 

Mary, Queen of Scots, favors . . .371 
persecuted during Elizabeth's reign, 373 

in Netherlands 378 

Catherine de' Medici favors . 385, 889 

attack Protestants 387 

harsh measures against 417 

in Ireland, defeated 425 

durini,' Charles II. 's reign .... 428 

Popish plot 429 

Whigs attack 430 

James II. favors 431 

debarred English succession . 432, 433 
Cat'iline, conspiracies of . . . 160, 171 

Cato, Roman patriot 150 

death of 164 

Cat'ulus, Roman general 144 

Caucasian race, divisions of .... 16 

Caucasus Mountains 16 

Cau'dine Pass, Romans surrender at . 139 
Cavaignac (ka-van-yak'), French gen- 
eral 522, 523 

Cavaliers (Royalists), principles of . 422 

Cavour (ka-voor') • 532-534 

Cawnpore, massacre at 543 

Ceerop'idae, dynasty of 85 

Ce'crops, founder of Athens . . .74, 84 

Celibacy of priests 284, 285 

Celtiber'ians, war with Rome . . .152 

Celts, race 16 

migrations , ... 181 

Cenobites, life of 233 

Centaurs, Greek divinities .... 119 
Central America, Columbus explores, 327 
Central Asia, nomad tribes in ... 22 
Ce'res, Roman goddess . 119, note ; 199 
Cerisoles (sa-re-zol'), Duke d'Enghien 

at 316 

Cervera (th6r-va'ra), at Santiago . . 557 

Ceylon', Buddhists in 61 

Chaerone'a, battle of Ill 

■Chalde'a, location of 38 

Chaldeans, race of 16 

Chalons (sha-loN') battle of . . 194, 559 
ChampoUion (shON-pol-yoN'), French 

savant 26 

Chandragup'ta, Indian prince ... 61 
Charlemagne (shar'le-man) .... 210 

war with Lombards 219 

campaigns against Saxons . . 219-221 

conquests of 222, 223 

dominions of 223 

crowned Roman emperor .... 225 

government of 226 

death of 226 



PAGE 

Charlemagne, influence on literature . 227 

character of 228 

trouble with Northmen . . 243, 245 
Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, 525, 527 
Charles, Archduke, claims Spanish 

throne 411, 413 

Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine . . .385 
Charles, Count of Valois ..... 312 
Cliarles Martel .... 213, 214, 257 
Charles the Bald .... 237, 2£8, 245 
Charles the Bold, of Burgundy . 338, 339 

Charles the Fat 239, 240 

deposed 241 

Charles ths Simple 241, 245 

Charles I., King of England . . 415, 418 
rules without Parliament .... 419 

policy toward Scotland 419 

executed 425 

Charles II. (Merry Monarcli), 407, 427, 428 
Charles IV., King of Franco, 309, note ; 

312, note 

Charles V 312, note 2 

Hundred Years' War ., ... 313 

Charles VI 312, note 2 ; 313 

Charles VII 312, note 2 

Joan of Arc 313 

English expelled 314 

power of Burgundian dukes ... 337 

Charles VIII . 312, note 2 

annexes Brittany 336 

Charles IX 312, note 2 

Civil War 386-391 

Charles X. 506 

policy of . o 511 

Revolution of 1830 512 

Charles IV., Emperor of Germany. . 318 

Charles V., dominions of . . . 341, 342 

wars with Francis I., 342-347, 355, 357 

abdicates • 348 

character 348, 349 

and Luther 354 

rules Netherlands 377 

Charles VI 439 

Charles VII -440 

Charles II., King of Spain .... 411 

Charles IV 496 

Charles V 329,332 

Charles XII., King of Sweden, cam- 
paigns of 446 

in Turkey . . . 447 

death of 447 

Chartists, demands of 542 

Cheops (Ke'ops), tomb of 33 

Children's Crusade 271 

China, legendary period in . . . . 54 
dynasties in 54 



574 



GENEKAL HISTOKY. 



PAGE 

China, Great Wall 54 

government in 54 

civilization in 55, 56 

inventions 56 

Buddhism in 61 

Marco Polo visits 325 

Mongol Empire in 559 

Genghis Khan, Manchn Tartars in. 560 
opened to foreign trade .... 560 
treaty with Great Britain, France, 

and United States 560 

war with Japan 561 

far Eastern question 561 

partition of 562 

Company of 458 

Chinese, claim discovery of North 

America 328 

Chivalry, origin of 280, 281 

amusements of, character of, effect 

on literature 282 

Chow dynasty, in China 54 

Christian church, early . . . 229, 230 
Christian II., King of Deimiark . . 365 

Christian IV 398 

Christianity, rise of, among Semites . 17 

Arabs threaten 17 

religion of Roman state .... 180 

battle of Tours 214 

Germany converted to 217 

Lombards adopt 219 

Saxons converted to 221 

church government 230 

Mohammedanism threatens . . . 257 

Spain lost to :'59 

crusades 260-273 

Jerusalem regained 272 

in Spanish and Portuguese colonies, 331 

Turks threaten 345 

introduced in Japan 561 

Christians, Nero persecutes , . . .174 

Domitian persecutes 177 

Diocletian persecutes . . . 178, 179 
Constantine the Great tolerates . .179 

Clovis favors 205, 206 

driven out of Holy Land .... 272 

massacre of, in Candia 554 

Church, Christian, rise of .... 230 

crusades Ijenefit 273 

discipline, reform of ... . 284, 285 
Concordat of Worms a triumph for, 

287, 288 
Babylonian captivity of .... 292 
Councils of Pisa and Constance , . 293 

spiritual supremacy of 293 

under Henry VIII 360-362 

under Mary 370 



PAGE 

Church, under Elizabeth 370 

under Charles II 427, 428 

in France 469 

Church, Established, worship of, en- 
forced 428 

Church government, theory of Pope 

Gregory 287 

abuses in 351 

Church of England, Henry VIII., 

head of 361, 362 

Puritans attempt to purify . . . 373 
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Roman orator, 160 

killed 168 

Cilicia (sMish'ya), Assyrians conquer, 39 
Alexander the Great in .... 112 

Cimbri, Romans defeat 156 

Cimon, commander of allied fleet . . 100 

policy of .101 

Cincinna'tus, story of 136 

Circus Maximus, laid out 131 

Cisal'pine Gaul, Rome acquires . . 145 
Cisalpine Republic, formed .... 486 
Citizens, in feudal society .... 280 

City, growth of 278, 280 

power of 288 

C/^yo/Goi, St. Augustine's . . . .228 
Civil war, in England .... 422 426 

in France 387-394 

Civilization, Egyptian 26 

Babylonian 38, 39 

Chinese 55 

early German 182, 183 

setback to German 402 

Clarendon, Constitutions of ... . 300 
Clarkson, English reformer .... 542 
Claudius, Roman emperor . 173, 174, 178 
Clement (klii-moN'), Jacques, stabs 

Henry III 393 

Clement VII., Pope 355, 361 

Cleon, Athenian leader 105 

Cleopatra, name on Rosetta Stone . 26 

death of 116 

Caesar takes up cause of . . . .164 

Egyptian queen 168 

Clermont, Council of 262 

Climate, influences of 13 

Clis'thenes, reforms of 88, 89 

Clitus, Alexander kills 115 

Clive, Lord, English statesman . . . 542 

Cloa'ca Max'ima, built 131 

Clotil'da, wife of Clovis 206 

Clouds, The, Aristophanes' .... 122 
Clovis, King of Franks .... 205, 212 

conversion of 206 

death of 207 

i Clu'ny, Abbey of 284 



INDEX. 



575 



PAGE 

Cnidus (ni'dfls), battle of 109 

, Cnut. See Canute. 

Coalition, against France 476 

broken 483 

Cobden, llichard, English reformer . 542 

Code Napoleon 492 

Co'drus, King of Athens 85 

Colbert, French finance minister, 405, 406 
Coligny (ko-le-nee'), Admiral, 385, 387, 388 
Collati'uus, Roman consul . . . .133 

Cologne, elector of 319, 410 

Colombia, independence of ... . 558 

Colonies, Greeks founded 78 

Spanish, in America . 329, 330, 550-558 
Portuguese, in America . . 329, 330 

Dutch 383 

strife over American 440 

England loses American .... 455 
Columbus, Christopher, discoveries 

of ...... . 323, 326, 327, 340 

Comi'tia, Curia'ta 131 

Centuriata 133 

Tril)uta 134 

Commentaries on Gallic War, Caesar's, 161 

Commerce, in Egypt 35 

of Jews 46 

of Phoenicians 49, 51, 52 

in India 62 

crusades stimulate 273 

with East 320, 325 

effect of discoveries on 332 

during Elizabeth's reign . . . .374 

of Dutch 383 

in France 395 

in Japan 561 

Committee of Pu))lic Safety, formed, 

477, 480 

abolished 482 

Com'modus, Roman emperor . . . 178 
Common Weal, League of the . . . 338 

Commons, House of 305, 516 

Conmionwealth, established . . 415, 425 
Commune, influence of . 471, 473, 477 

under control 482 

Communists, Hubert, leader of . . .480 

uprising in Paris 540 

Company, of China 458 

of the East Indies 458 

Compass, Chinese invent 56 

Concordat of Worms . . 287, 289, 316 
Cond6 (koN'de), Prince of . . S86-388 
Confederacy of Delos . . .99, 103, 104 
Confederation of Rhine . . . 494, 502 
Confu'cianism, Chinese religion . . 55 

Confucius, teachings of 55 

Congress of Vienna, 501, 502, 508, 513, 514 



PAGE 
Congress, of Verona . . 507, 510, 517 

at Carlsbad 509 

ofLaibach 517 

of Troppau 517 

of Berlin 548 

Conrad II. of Franconia . . . 314, 316 

Conrad III 267, 317 

Conservative party, in France . . . 519 

in England 542 

Conspiracy of Amboise 386 

Constance, treaty of 289, 320 

Council of 293 

Constant, Benjamin 512 

Con'stantine the Great, Roman em- 
peror, tolerates Christianity . . 179 
Christianity state religion .... 180 

donation of 232 

Constantine, Grand Duke 514 

Constantinople (Byzantium), fall of, 

18, 196, 559 

Athenians capture 100 

origin of name 180 

Turks capture . . . 203, 259, 323, 344 

capital of Patriarchate 230 

Northmen settle in 250 

Moslem attack on 257 

crusaders at 263, 264 

Western Cliristians acquire . . . 270 
Latin Empire established at . . . 320 

Meheniet Ali threatens 520 

riot in 553 

Constan'tiusChlorus, Roman emperor, 179 
Constituent Assembly, in France . . 464 

Constitution, of Sparta 79 

of Solon 86 

of the Clergy 469 

of 1812, in Spain 507 

Constitutional history 11 

Constitutionalists, views of ... . 471 

modern 519 

Constitutions of Clarendon .... 300 

Consulate, in France 483 

Consuls, in Roman government . . 139 

Continental system 495 

Conventicle Act 428 

Cook, Captain, discoveries of . . . 558 

Copts, classification of 17 

Corcy'ra, conflict with Corinth . . .105 
Corday', Charlotte, kills Marat . . 479 
Cordeliers (kor-de-ler'), object of . .467 
in Legislative Assembly . . . .471 
Cor'dova, capital Spanish Caliphate . 258 
Corinth, conflict with Corcyra . . .105 

aids Thebans 109 

captured 150 

Isthmus of o . . 72 



576 



GENEKAL HISTOEY. 



n 



PAGE 

Corinthian columns, in architecture . 123 

Coriola'nus, story of 136 

Corn laws, repealed 542 

Cornelius Scipio, Roman general . . 146 
Corsica, Phoenician colonies in . . . 51 

Vandal colonies in 192 

Napoleon born at 485 

Cortereal', explorations of .... 328 
Cortez, Hernanflo, discoveries of . . 329 
Cosmo de' Medi<;i (m6d'e-chee) . . 821 
Cossae'an dynasty, in Babylon ... 39 

Covmcil, of Clermont 262 

of Pisa 293 

of Constance 293 

of the Indies 331 

of Trent 347, 367 

of Blood 379 

of Ancients 484 

of Five Hundred 484 

Counter Reformation 367 

Coup d'dtat (koo-da-ta') of 1851 . . . 526 

Court of Star Chamber 419 

Coutras (koo-tra'), victory of . . . 392 
Cranmer, Thomas, Archbishop . 361, 370 
Crassus, Marcus .... 158, 161, 162 

Cr6cy (kres'si), battle of 306 

Crespy (kra-pe'), treaty of .... 347 
Crete, Phoenician settlements in . . 51 

colonized 78 

right of self-government gia: I ted . 553 

dependency of Porte 554 

Crime'a, Catherine II. conquers . . 449 

Crimean war 530-532 

Croes'us, King of Lydia 65 

Cromwell, Oliver, head of army . . 424 

Lord Protector 425 

foreign policy of 426 

Cromwell, Pachard, Protector . . . 427 
Cromwell, Thomas, minister to Henry 

VIII 361, 362 

Cromwell's Ironsides 424 

Crusaders, classes of 263 

Crusades 260-273 

nature and cause 260-262 

First, capture of Nicaea, siege of 

Antioch 264, 265 

capture of Jerusalem 265 

battle of Ascalon .... 265, 266 
Second, St. Bernard preacbes . . . 266 

fall of Edessa 266 

failure of 267 

Third, under Frederick Barbarossa 
of Germany, Philip Augustus of 
France, Richard I. of England . 268 
Frederick Barbarossa drowned . 268 
siege of Acre 268 



PAGE 

Crusades, Philip returns to France . 268 
Third, Saladin allows pilgrim- 
ages 269 

Fourth, under Boniface II. and 

Baldwin IV 269 

Venetians aid 269 

Co)istantinople captured . 269, 270 
Latin Empire established . . . 270 

Children's 271 

Fifth, under Frederick II. ... 271 
Jerusalem surrenders .... 272 
of Louis IX. of France .... 272 

Damietta taken 272 

effects of 273, 325 

against Albigenses 292 

Cuba, discovered 327 

rebellion in f 55 

declared independent 556 

Spain gives up 557 

Cunax'a, battle of 1C8 

Cuneiform inscriptions 37 

Curiatii (ku-ri-a'shi-i), combat with 

Horatii 130 

Custozza (koos-tod'za), battle of . . 527 
Cyax'ares, destroys Assyrian Empire, 64 

Cynosceph'alae, battle of 149 

Cyprus, colonized 78 

Christians retain 273 

Cyrus tlie Great, conquers Medes . . 42 

conquers Babylonia 47 

life of 64, 65 

conquers Lydia 65, 91 

death of 66 

Cyrus the Younger, revolt of . . . 108 
Cythe'ra, Phoenician settlements in . 51 
Czechish (ch6k-) language . . . .558 

Da'cia, seized 178 

Goths acquire 185 

Dag'obert, King of Franks .... 212 

Dai'mios, in Japan 560 

Damascus, capital of the Ommiads . 257 
Damietta, fortress captured . . 271, 272 

Dan, people of 49 

Dan'aiis, Greek hero 74 

Da'nelagh (Danelaw), location of . . 248 
Danes, threaten kingdom of Franks . 218 

ravages of 247 

conquer England 249 

Danish war 530 

Danton(d5N-toN'), leader of Cordelier 

Club 467 

Jacobin leader 475, 480 

executed 481 

Danube River, Germans driven across, 178 
! boundary of Roman Empire . . .181 



INDEX. 



577 



PAGE 

Danube River, Germans settle on, 184, 186 

Russians occupy 530 

free passage of 532 

Dari'us Hystas'pes, Persian Icing . . 66 

government of 91 

death of 93 

Darius III., Persian king 112 

defeated at Arbela 113 

Darnley, marries Mary, Queen of Scots, 371 

David, Hebrew king 45 

Davis, discoveries of 375 

Debt, in France 463 

Deccan, in Cliina 56 

Decern' virs, duties of 134 

De'cius Mus, Roman general . . . 139 
Decius, Roman emperor . . . 178, 184 
Declaration, of Indulgence .... 431 

of Pilnitz 472 

of Rights 432 

Defender, of Holy Sepulcher, Godfrey 

de Bouillon called 265 

of the Faith, Henry VIII. called . 360 

Defoe, English author 435 

Delhi (dei'le), British murdered in . 543 
Delos, Confederacy of, formed . . 99, 100 

Athens head of 104 

Del'phi, temple at Ill 

Deluge, Babylonian story of .... 38 
Deme'ter, Greek goddess . . . 119, note 
Democi'acy, Athens becomes ... 88 
Democratic constitution of Athens . 104 
Democratic party, Caesar leader of . 162 
Demos, Athenian people calked . . 87 
Demos'theneg, Athenian general . . 106 

orator Ill, 122 

death of 116 

Demotic text 25 

D'Enghien (d6N-gaN'), Duke, defeats 

Spaniards 346 

execution of 492 

Denmark, home of Northmen . . . 244 

Protestantism in 365 

threatens Sw^eden 446 

King of, in German Confederation . 503 
Sclilesvvig, vassal state of ... . 536 

De Ruyter (deh roi'ter) 426 

Deside'rius, King of the Lombards . 219 
Dessau (des'sou), battle of ... . 398 

Det'tingen, battle of 439 

Devi^ey, Commodore, victory at Manila, 556 
De Witt, Dutch commander .... 426 
Dhomokos, Greeks repulsed at . . . 553 
Dia'na, Roman goddess . 118, note ; 199 
Dias (de'as), Bartholomew, discoveries 

of 326, 330 

Did'ius Julia' nus 178, note 



PAGE 
Dido, founds Carthage ... 50, note 
Diebitsch (de'bich), Russian general, 514 

Diet, of Worms 354 

at Augsburg 356 

of Spires 356 

in Poland 449 

Diocle'tian, Roman emperor .... 178 
Directory, France under . . . 484^89 

weakness of 486 

overthrow of 488 

Discovery, period of .... 325-332 

during Elizabeth's reign . . . .374 

Divine right of kings . 416, 418, 421, 422 

Dodo'na, oracle of Zeus at .... 119 

Doge of Venice 270 

Dom Pedro I., Emperor of Brazil . . 558 

Dom Pedro II 558 

Domin'ican monks 292 

Domitian, Roman emperor .... 176 
Do-Nothing Kings (Eois Faine'ants) . 203 

Don Henry, travels of 326 

Donation, of Pepin 215, 232 

of Constantine 232 

Donau worth (do'nou-vert), seized , . 397 
Doomsday Book, contents of . . . 296 

Dorians, Greek tribe 73 

driven southward 77 

colonies of 78 

Doric style of architecture .... 123 

Dorus, son of Hellen 73 

Dover, treaty of 407, 428 

Dra'co, laws of 86 

Dragonnades' 409 

Dx-ake, Sir Francis, fights Spanish Ar- 
mada 372 

expedition of 374 

Dresden, treaty of 440 

battle of 500 

Dreux (dre), battle of 387 

Dubienka, battle of 450 

Dukes, power of 314, 316 

Dumouriez (dii-moo-re-a') . . 472, 474 

treason of 476 

Dunbar, battle of 425 

Dunois (dii-nwji') 314, 337 

Dupont (du-p6nt'), Frendi general . 496 

Dutch, commerce of 383 

resist French 407, 4C8 

alliance with English and Aus- 

trians 431 

Dutch Republic, beginning of . . . 381 
Dyeing, among Phoenicians .... 51 

Dynasty, defined 27 

fourth, in Egypt 27 

fifth, in Egypt 28 

twelfth, in Egypt 28 



578 



GENEKAL HISTORY. 



PAGE 

East Indies, Dutch settlements in . 383 

Company of the 458 

Eastern question 549, 560 

Eastern Roman Empire 180 

Italy reannexed to 208 

Vandal kingdom reannexed to . . 209 

Turks threaten 262 

division of 270 

fall of 323 

Ebro (a'bro) River, Saracens driven 

beyond 223 

Eeele'sia, in Athenian government . 88 
Ecclesiastical Reservation .... 359 
Eek, Dr., Catholic champion, . . . 353 

Eckmtihl, battle of 497 

Ec'nomus, Carthaginian defeat at . . 143 

Economic history 11 

Eddas, value of 251 

Edessa, fall of 266 

Edgar, King of England 249 

Edict, of Milan 179 

of St. Germain 386 

of Nantes 394, 410 

of Restitution 399 

Edinna, in Babylonia 38 

Edmund, Duke of York . . . 308, note 
Edmnnd Ironsides, King of England, 249 

Edom, David conquers 49 

Education, in Egypt 31 

Spartan . 80 

Roman 202 

Charlemagne encourages . . . .227 

in England 248, 542 

in Holland 383 

Edward, Black Prince .... 308, note 

Edward the Confessor 250 

Anglo-Saxon king 295 

Edward I,, King of England, invades 

Syria 272 

Wales and Scotland, conquered . . 305 

Edward II 305 

deposed 306 

Edward III., Hundred Years' war, 

Crdcy, Poitiers, Calais . . 306, 313 
Edward IV., war of Roses . . 333-335 

Edward V 335 

Edward VI 369 

Egbert, King of Wessex 247 

Ege'ria, nymph 130 

Eginhard, Charlemagne's secretary . 227 

Egmont, Count 378 

Egypt, boundaries of ancient ... 23 
source of information regarding . 24 
antiquity of civilization .... 26 

conquered by Persians 27 

Middle Empire in 28 



PAGE 

Egypt, art in 28 

New Empire in 29 

decline of power 31 

society in .31 

government in 32 

religion in 32 

art in 33, 34 

agriculture in 35 

commerce in 35 

conquered by Esarhaddon .... 40 

exodus of Jews from 45 

Hebrew alliance with 46 

invaded by Carabyses 66 

invaded by Macedonians .... 113 

under the Ptolemies 115 

Roman province 116 

Caesar in 164 

Mohammedanism in 256 

Louis IX. 's crusade against . . . 272 

route to India through 326 

Napoleon's campaign in . . 486, 487 

under English control . . . 549, 551 

Egyptians, historic records of ... 17 

classification of 17 

civilization of 21 

origin 24 

defeated by Nebuchadnezzar ... 41 

Eis'leben, Luther born at 352 

E'lath, Gulf of 46 

Elba, Napoleon banished to ... . 500 
E'lis, Olympic festivals in . . . . ]20 
Elizabeth, Queen of England, last of 

Tudors 369 

church of 370, 373 

cliaracter 375, 376 

ally of Dutch 382 

death 416 

Elizabeth of York, wife of Henry 

VII 336 

Ell'ora, temples of 62 

Ely, marshes of 296 

England (Engla-land), origin of name, 193 
Northmen settle in ... . 244, 247 
under Alfred the Great . . . 247, 248 

Danish conquest 247-249 

Norman kings in 295-299 

in Middle Ages 295-309 

Norman conquest 295 

William the Conqueror 295 

Plantagenets 299-307 

Ireland invaded 301, 302 

loses possessions in France . 303, 310 
struggle with Barons . . . 303-305 

Magna Charta 304 

Mad Parliament 305 

civil war 305 



INDEX. 



PAGE 
England, conquest of Wales and Scot- 
land 305 

Hundred Years' war with France, 

306, 308 

revolt of peasants 306, 307 

Black Death 306 

houses of Lancaster and York . . 308 
Edward III,, claims French throne, 312 

war of the Roses 333-335 

rise of absolute monarchy . . 335, 336 

Reformation 359-363 

Henry VIII 359 

Calvinism 365 

destroys Spanish Armada .... 372 
joins League of Augsburg .... 410 
war of Spanish Succession . . 412, 434 

treaty of Utrecht 413 

Petition of Right 418, 419 

civil war 422-426 

Cromwell 424-426 

Commonwealth 425 

Protectorate 426 

Restoration 427-430 

alliance with Holland and Sweden, 428 ' 
Revolution of 1688 . . . . 432, 516 

Declaration of Rights 432 

England and Scotland united . . 434 
strife over American colonies . . 440 

Seven Years' war 440, 441 

aids Prussia 441 

in eighteenth century 451 

hostility with Spain 454 

joins coalition against France . . 476 

ports of, closed 495 

Peninsular wars 496, 497 

Reform Bill 516, 517 

Crimean war 530-532 

reforms in 541, 542 

repeal of Corn Laws 542 

British Indian Empire 542 

Afghan wars 543, 544 

Indian mutiny 543 

Ireland 544-546 

and Egypt 549 

Transvaal 550 

possessions in Africa 551 

English, driven out of Brittany . . 313 

expelled from France 314 

alliance with Dutch and Austrians, 439 
E-pam-i-n6n'das, Theban general, 109, 110 

Ephors, in Sparta 80 

Epi'rus, division of Greece .... 71 
Er'icson, Leif, discovery of ... . 328 
E'sar-had'don, Assyrian king ... 40 
Estho'nia, ceded to Russia .... 447 
Eth'elred the Redeless, English king . 249 



PAGE 

Ethio'pians, race 16 

Ethnology, defined .13 

Etru'ria, inlialntants of 127 

Etrus'cans, in Italy 127 

war with Rome 135, 137 

join Samnites 139, 140 

Rome conquers 140 

Eugene of Savoy, Prince . . . 412, 413 
Eupat'ridae, Athenian nobles ... 85 
Euphra'tes River, valley of . 22, 36, 37 
boundary of Roman Empire . . .171 
Eurip'ide§, Greek dramatist, 103, 121, 122 
Evangelical Union, formed .... 397 

Exodus, Book of 44 

Eylau (i'lou), battle of 494 

Falkirk, battle of 305 

Far Eastern question 561 

Farnese (far-na'se), Alexander, Span- 
ish general 380 

Fasho'da, French at 551 

Fa'tima, daughter of Mohammed . . 258 
Fat'imites, in northern Africa . . . 258 

Fauns, Greek divinities 119 

Fawkes, Guy, Gunpowder Plot . . . 417 

February Revolution 523 

Federal Assembly in Union of Utrecht, 381 
Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria, abdi- 
cates 528 

Ferdinand of Aragon, King of Spain, 259 
Moorish power destroyed in Spain . 259 

Council of the Indies 331 

Inquisition 340 

America discovered 340 

Ferdinand VII., restored to throne, 

506, 507 

Ferdinand I. of Bohemia 397 

Thirty Years' war 398, 400 

Ferdinand, son of Charles IV. of 

Spain 496 

Festivals of Greeks 120 

Fetia'les, in Rome 200 

Feud, defined 276 

Feudal grant, defined 276 

Feudal society, classes 279 

Feudalism, begun 216, 227 

in Europe 242 

weakening of 273 

origin of 275 

extent 277 

theory of 278 

defects 278, 297 

decay 278, 279 

in Poland 449 

in Japan 560, 561 

Fief, defined 275, 276 



580 



GENEKAL HISTOEY. 



PAGE 

Field of Lies 237 

Fiesclii(fe-6s'kee), French conspirator, 520 
Financial troubles, in France . 457-463 

Finland, ceded to Russia 447 

Finns, classification 17 

Fire, great, in Rome .... 174, 176 

Fire worship, of Persians 68 

Five Hundred, Council of 484 

Five-Mile Act 428 

Flamens, Roman priests 200 

Flamini'nus, Roman general .... 149 
Flanders, Maria Theresa claims . . 406 
Spain relinquishes possessions in . 408 
Flemings, Charles V. favors . . . .377 
Fleury (fluh-re'), French minister . . 460 

Flodden Field, battle of 360 

Florence, industrial center . . 320, 321 
Floria'nus, Roman emperor . . 178, note 

Fon'tenay, battle of 237 

Forum, defined 198 

Fouquet (foo-ka'), French finance 

minister 405 

degraded 406 

France. See Franks and Carolingians. 

in hands of Franks 207 

Saracens invade 214 

beginning of 288 

Carolingians in 240 

Northmen in 240, 243-245 

lawlessness in 242, 464 

England loses poss::;ssions in . . . 303 
Hundred Years' war . 306, 308, 313, 337 

Henry V. invades 308 

in Middle Ages 309 

English possessions in 309 

Capetian line in 309 

war against Albigenses . , . 310, 311 

House of Valois 312 

English claim throne 312 

Joan of Arc 313 

absolute monarchy established, 314, 339 
freed from English rule . . . 323, 333 

Brittany annexed to 336 

Charles the Bold of Burgundy. 338, 339 
relinquishes claims in Itnly . . .344 
wars between Francis I. and Charles 

V f55, 357 

Calvinism in 365 

Jesuits in 367 

Huguenots in 384-395 

• Reformation in 384 

civil war 387-394 

massacre of St. Bartholomew . 389-391 

Edict of Nantes 394 

treaty of Westphalia 401 

leading nation of Europe . . 402, 404 



PAGE 

France, war with Spain 406 

war with Holland 406-408 

•var of the Palatinate . . 406, 410, 411 
war of Spanish Succession 406, 411-414 

alliance against 412 

treaty of Utrecht 413 

condition at close of Louis XIV. 's 

reign 414 

war of Austrian Succession . . . 439 

alliance with Austria 440 

under Regency 457 

French Revolution .... 457-470 

financial troubles 457-460 

foreign policy 460 

under Legislative Assembly . 471-474 
under National Convention . 474-484 

Republic proclaimed 475 

first coalition against 476 

under Directory 484-489 

under Napoleon 489-504 

Peninsular wars 496 

Holland joined to 497 

Papal States joined to 497 

Allies conquer .500, 501 

Congress of Vienna 502 

Revolution of 1830 . . . 512, 513, 518 

under Louis Philippe 519 

universal suff'rage demanded . 519-521 

Revolution of 1848 521 

Second Republic in ... . 522, 523 

monarchy restored 527 

Crimean war 530-532 

leading state in Europe .... 532 
war of Italian Independence . . . 533 
Franco-German war .... 539, 540 

Third Republic 540 

possessions in Africa 551 

concessions in China 562 

Franche-Comt6 (fr6Nsh-koN-ta'), 

Spain relinquishes 408 

Francis, Duke of Guise 385 

Francis I., King of France . 312, note 2 
wars with Charles V. . . 342-347, 355 

alliance with Turks 344 

death of 347 

persecution of Huguenots .... 384 

Francis II 312, note 2 

marries Mary, Queen of Scots, 371,385,386 
Francis I., German emperor .... 440 
Francis II. (Francis I. of Aiistria), re- 
linquishes Holy Roman Empire . 494 

policy of 508, 509 

Francis Joseph, Austrian emperor . 528 

Francis'can monks 292 

Franco-German war . . . 239, 539, 540 
Franco'nia, German duchy .... 240 



INDEX. 



581 



PAGE 

Franconian line, in Germany . . . 316 
Frankfort, National Assembly at, 524, 527 
Frankfort Parliament . . . , 524, 525 

Franks, Teutonic tribe 186 

enter Northern Gaul 188 

subdue Burgundians 192 

aid Romans 194 

early history 205 

four kingdoms in Gaul 205 

accept Christianity 206 

ascendancy of 206, 207 

kingdom of 212-217, 222 

division of empire . . . 216, 228, 236 
Frederick, King of Denmark . . . 365 
Frederick I., Barbarossa, German em- 
peror, third crusade 268 

and Papacy 288 

Lombard League 289 

treaty of Venice 289 

policy of 317 

Italian cities oppose 320 

Frederick II., crusade of 271 

King of Jerusalem 272 

death of . 290 

intellectual life 317 

Frederick III 319 

Frederick V., King of Bohemia . 398, 417 
Frederick II., the Great, King of 
Prussia, early life of . . . 438, 439 
war of Austrian Succession . 439, 440 

demands Silesia ±39 

Seven Years' war 4''.y, 441 

character of reign ....<,.. 441 
Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, 

protects Luther . . . 353, 354, 356 
Frederick William, elector of Bran- 
denburg 436, 437 

Frederick William I., King of Prussia, 

economy of 437, 438 

Frederick III., humiliation of Prussia, 

494, 495 
Ficderick IV., liberal movement in 

Gern.any 523, 524, 527 

French army 474 

French Republic, first 475 

second 522 

third 540 

French Revolution, influenced by par- 
tition of Poland 451 

periods of 457 

causes 461. 462 

Bastile taken 465 

Aliolition of Privileges 466 

Jacobins and Cordeliers .... 467 
Robespierre, Marat, Danton, Hubert, 

467, 475, 480 



PAGE 

French Revolution, new Constitution, 469 

Mirabeau 470 

Legislative Assen)l)ly . . . 471-474 

Austria and Prussia 472 

massacre of Swiss Guards .... 472 

September Massacres 473 

National Convention .... 474-484 

Republic proclaimed 475 

Girondists, Mountain, Jacobins . . 475 
Louis XVI. executed .... 475, 477 
coalition against France .... 476 

Reign of Terror 478-482 

Charlotte Corday 479 

Committee of Public Safety . . .480 

mob repulsed 483 

Directory 484-488 

rise of Napoleon 484, 485 

treaty of Campo Formio .... 486 
campaign in Egypt .... 486, 487 

Consulate 489 

Prussia humiliated .... 494, 495 

peace of Tilsit 494 

Continental System 495 

Napoleon's height of power . . . 495 
Berlin Decree, Orders in Council, 

Milan Decree 495 

Peninsular wars 496 

Wagram 497 

siege of Saragossa 497, 498 

extent of Napoleon's empire . . .497 

loss of Spain 498 

Wellington 498 

Russian campaign .... 498, 499 

war of Liberation 499, 500 

"Battle of the Nations" , . . .500 
Napoleon abdicates ...... 500 

Napoleon returns 501 

Waterloo 501 

Congress of Vienna 502 

Friedland, battle of 494 

Friedrichshall, Charles XII. killed at, 447 
Friesland, joins Union of Utrecht . 381 

Frisia, Lothair governs 238 

Frisians, slay St. Boniface . . . .217 
Frobisher, Lieut., discoveries of 372-375 
Frogs, The, Aristophanes' .... 122 

Ga'des, founded 51 

Gai'seric (Gen'seric), King of Vandals, 195 

Gallic invasion 137 

Games, in Greece 120 

Ganges River, valley of 22 

Hindus settle along 57 

boundary of Syria 116 

Garibaldi, Italian patiiot 535 

Gastein Convention 537 



582 



GENERAL HISTORY. 



PAGE 

Gau-ga-me'la, Darias at 113 

Gaul, Caesar conquers 161 

Roman province 162 

citizenship of inhabitants .... 164 

Franks in 188, 205 

Visigoths in 190 

Roman power destroyed in . . . 205 

Gauls, wars with Rome 135 

invade Italy 137 

leave Rome 138 

join Samnites 140 

Romans conquer 140 

welcome Hannibal 146 

conquered by Cimbri and Teutones, 156 

Gaunt, John of 333, 335 

Gautama (gow'tama), reforms of . . 59 

Geismar, sacred oak at 217 

Geneva, Calvin in 364 

G6n'ghls Khan, Mongolian invasion 

under 559, 560 

Gen'oa, Columbus born at .... 326 

sides with Charles V 344 

Louis XIV. humbles 409 

incorporated with France .... 492 

King of Sardinia acquires . . . .503 

Gen'seric(Gai'seric), King of Vandals, 195 

Geoffrey Plantag'enet 299 

Geography, function of 12 

political, physical 12 

crusades increase knowledge of . . 273 

mediaeval knowledge of .... 325 

George I., King of England . . . .452 

George II 453, 454 

George III 455 

George IV 456 

George, Prince of Greece, High Com- 
missioner of Crete 554 

German Diet, Sweden represented in, 402 
German Empire, founded . . . 536-540 
Germans, driven across Rhine . . .161 

seize Dacia 178 

origin, migrations 181 

tribal organization .... 182, 183 

civilization 182, 183 

characteristics 183 

join Romans 194 

Christianity of 195 

independence of 226 

in Russia 250 

defeated in second crusade . . .267 

aid Huguenots 392 

Germany, war with Romans . . . 172 

Romans invade 184 

convert to Christianity 217 

Carolingian rulers 235-240 

beginning of 238 



PAGE 
Germany, origin of Alsace-Lorraine 

question 239 

lavvnessness in 242 

and Italy 314-321 

Saxon en)perors 314-316 

Lorraine reannexed to 315 

Franconian emperors 316 

internal wars 316 

Hohenstaufens 316, 317 

Interregnum 318 

the Hapsburgs 319 

wars between Francis I. and 

Charles V 343-347, 355 

Reformation, Luther . . . 352-359 

Calvinism in 365 

Jesuits in 367 

Thirty Years' war 396-403 

Gustavus A dolphus enters. . . .399 

treaty of Westphalia 401 

alliance with Holland 408 

League of Augsburg 410 

war of Spanish Succession . . . .412 
war of Austrian Succession . . . 439 
Confederation of the Rhine . . .494 
government reorganized . 502, r-03, 516 
rivalry between Austria and Prussia, 504 
suppression of liberalism .... 509 

liberal movement in 516 

Revolution of 1830 518 

reform movement 523, 524 

National Assembly of Frankfort 524, 527 
German Empire founded . . 536-540 
Schleswig-Holstein question . . . 536 
Franco-German war .... 539, 540 

possessions in Africa 551 

Ge'ta, Roman emperor .... 178, note 

Ghent, revolt of 346 

pacification of 381 

Ghib'ellines, strife with Guelphs, 317, 318 
Gibraltar, English capture . . 412, 414 

Gideon, Hebrew leader 45 

Girondists, in Legislative Assembly . 471 

in control 472, 476 

in National Convention . . . 474, 482 

fall of 476,477 

execution 479 

Gizeh (gee'zeh), pyramid of .... 27 

sphinx near 33 

Gladiators, revolt of 158 

Gladstone, English statesman . . .544 

Home Rule 546 

Godfrey de Bouillon (boo-yoN') . . .263 

Godoy', agreement with Napoleon . 496 

Golden Age, of Latin literature . . 171 

of Turkish race ........ 344 

Golden Bull 318 



INDEX. 



583 



PAGE 

Good Hope, Cape of, discovered . . 326 
Gordia'niis, K,u)uaii empeior . 178, note 
Gordon, Scotch adviser of Peter . . 444 

Goshen, Joseph settles in 44 

Goths, invade Riman Empire ... 13 

language 13 

defeat Romans 178 

invade Moe'sia 184, 185 

home 186 

invade Greece 187 

Government, despotic, in Asia and 

Africa 22 

in Egypt 32 

in China 54 

of Persia 66 

of ancient Greece 76 

in Sparta . . j 79 

in Athens 85-89 

in Rome . . . 129-133, 141, 170, 178 

of Franks 213 

church 230, 351 

of Spanish and Portuguese colonies, 

330, 331 

in France 468-504 

of India 543 

in Japan 560, 561 

Gracchi, reforms of 155 

Gracchus, Gains 155 

Graces, Greek divinities 119 

Graeco-Turkish war 553 

Grana'da, fall of 327, 840 

Grand Remonstrance 421 

Grani'cus River, battle of .... 112 

Granson, battle of 338 

Granvelle, adviser of Margaret of 

Parma 378 

Great Britain, Roman province . . 192 
Anglo-Saxon kingdom in ... . 193 

in Congress of Vienna 502 

concessions in China 562 

Sec England. 

Great Greece, Greeks in 127 

Great Northern war 445, 447 

Great Pyramid at Gizeh 33 

"Great Wall" of China 54 

Grecian Archipelago, Phoenician set- 
tlements in 51 

Greece, physical features . . . . 13, 72 
Phoenician alphabet introduced . 52 

conquers India 61 

Persian expedition against ... 66 
divisions of, geographical situa- 
tion 71 

local independence 72 

Heroic Age in 73, 74, 76 

Homeric poems 74-76 



PAGE 

Greece, Phoenician influence in . . 74 

government 76 

life and manners 76, 77 

flourishing era 90-98 

Persian wars 90-98 

Thermopylae 95, 96 

Salaniis 97 

defeat of Persians 98 

Peloponnesian war 104-107 

See Athens, Sparta. 
Spartan supremacy .... 108, 109 

Theban supremacy 110 

Macedonian supremacy. . . 110-117 
Achaean League, Aetolian League . 116 
Roman in-ovince .... 117, 142, 150 

religion 118-120 

festivals and games 120 

art 121 

literature 121-123 

marriage customs 124, 125 

burial 125 

political life 126 

Goths invade 187 

regains control of Eastern Empire 271 

province of Turkey 509 

liberation of t>10, 511 

Graeco-Turkish war 553 

Greek calendar 120 

Greek cities, in Asia Minor . . 91, 109 

in Italy 140, 141, 150 

Greek civilization, spread of . . 115, 118 
influence on Rome .... 153, 154 

Greek history, periods of 77 

Greek Independence, war of . . 509, 510 

Greek theater 123, 124 

Greeks, seafaring tendencies of . . 72 

migrations 77 

in Asia Minor 90, 100 

in Italy 127 

join Samnites 140 

war with Rome 142 

regain control of Eastern Empire . 271 

Normans attack 31P 

See Greece. 
Greenland, Northmen settle in . . . 251 

Gregory the Great, Pope 231 

Gregory VII., Alyxius I. appeals to . 262 

reforms of 284,285 

contest with Henry IV. . . 285, 286 

character 286,287 

Grey, Lady Jane 369 

Groningen {Hr5n'ning-Hen), joins 

Union of Utrecht 381 

Guam (gwiim), in theLadrones, ceded 

to United States 557 

Guelderland, joins ITnion of Utrecht . 381 



584 



GENEKAL HISTOKY. 



PAGE 

Guelphs (Welfs), strife with Ghibel- 

lines 317, S18 

Guillotin (ge-yo-taN'), Dr., invents guil- 
lotine 479 

Guillotine, activity of ... . 479, 481 
Guiscard (ges-kar), Robert .... 319 
Guise (gez), Duke of, attacks Protes- 
tants 387 

Guise family .... 385, 3i:6, 389, 390 
Guizot (ge-zo'), French statesman, 

512, 519, 521 
Gunpow^der, Chinese invent .... 56 

introduced 279 

Gunpowder Plot 416, 417 

Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, 
Thirty Years' war, 397, 399, 400, 445 

Habeas Corpus Act 429 

Ha'des, Greek god 118, note 

Hadrian, Roman emperor . . . .177 

Hadrian IV., Pope 301 

Haiti, discovered 327 

slave traffic in 331 

Halys River, boundary of Media . . 64 

Ham, son of Noah 17 

Hamadry'ade§, Greek divinities . . 119 

Hamil'car Barca 146 

Hamit'ic race, divisions of .... 17 

Hampden, John 419, 421 

Han dynasty, in China 54 

Hannibal, establishes Carthaginian 

Empire in Spain 146 

in Italy 146 

crosses Alps 146 

policy of 147 

recalled to Carthage 148 

death of 149 

Hanover, concessions to 516 

Hanover, Elector of 434 

Hanoverian dynasty 451 

Hapsburg, house of ... . 318, 319, 341 
Hardicanute, King of England . . . 250 
Harmo'dius, conspiracy of .... 88 
Harold, King of England. . . 250, 295 
Haroun-al-Raschid (ha-roon'-al-rash'- 

id), Arabian caliph 259 

Harus'pices (soothsayers) 200 

Hastings, battle of 295 

Havana, Maine blown up in harbor of, 556 
Havelock, English general .... 543 
Hawkins, Lieut., expeditions of, 372, 374 
Hubert (a-bar), member of Cordeliers 467 

policy of 480 

executed 481 

H^bertists, atheism of 481 

Hebrews, Semitic race 16 



PAGE 

Hebrews, mission 43, 47 

history 43 

origin 44 

exodus 45 

Era of the Judges 45 

Era of Monarchy 45 

divided kingdom 46 

arts of 47 

decline of power 47 

Babylonian captivity 47 

alliance with Tyre 49 

See Jeivs. 
Heb'rides Islands, Northmen in . . 251 
Heg'ira, Mohammedan time reckoned 

from 254 

Helen, wife of Menelaus 75 

Heliogab'alus, Roman emperor, 178, note 

Heliop'olis, obelisk of 28 

He'lios, Greek god 119 

Hellas, Greece 71 

Hellen, ancestor of Greeks .... 73 

Helle'ne§, Greeks called 71 

origin of 73 

Hellespont, Aeolians settle on coast of, 78 

Xerxes at 95 

He'Iots, treatment of 84 

revolt of 101 

Helvet'ic Republic, formed .... 488 

Hengist, Jutish chieftain 193 

Henry, Duke of Guise .... 392, 393 

Henry, Duke of Lancaster 307 

Henry the Lion 317 

Henry the Navigator 326 

Henry the Proud 317 

Henry I., King of England, 295, note; 297 

invades Normandy 298 

Henry II., subdues Barons .... 299 

Thomas a Becket 300, 301 

Henry III., 304 

Mad Parliament 305 

Henry IV. of Lancaster 308 

Heniy V., Hundi'ed Years' war, 

308, 313, 333 

Henry VI 313 

war of Roses 333, 334 

Henry VII., Colimibus appeals to . . 327 
beginning of absolute monarcliy, 

335, 336 
Henry VIII., joins Charles V. . . . 342 

aids Francis 1 343 

attacks France 347 

attitude toward Luther 358 

divorce question. Defender of the 

Faith 360 

breach with Rome 361 

New Church established .... 362 



INDEX. 



585 



PAGE 

Henry VIII., character 363 

death 369 

Henry I., the Fowler, German em- 
peror, first Saxon king . . , .314 
Lorraine reannexed .... 315, 316 

Henry III., Truce of God 316 

Henry IV., contest Avith Pope Gregory, 

285"^ 286, 316 
Henry Vo, Concordat of "Worms . . 287 

',var of Investitures 816 

Henry VI 269, 317 

Henry I., King of France . . . 309, note 

Henry II 312, note 2 ; 348 

Huguenots, persecuted 384 

killed . .' 385 

Henry III 312, note 2 ; 385 

Holy League 391, 392 

murdered 393 

Hem-y IV., of Navarre 387 

marriage 388 

religious attitude 391, 392 

excommunicated 392 

turns Catholic 393 

Edict of Nantes 394 

improvements in reiun of ... . 395 
Hephaes'tus, Greek god . . 118, note 

Heptarchy, period of 246 

Hera, Greek goddess . . . 118, note 

Heracle'a, battle of 140 

Herac'lius, Eastern Ron:an emperor, 209 

Hercula'neum, buried 176 

Her'cule§, of Phoenicia 49 

of Greek mythology 53 

Here ward, Anglo-Saxon chief . . . 296 

Her'me§, Greek god 118, note 

Hermits, life of 233 

Herod'otus, Greek historian, 23, 24, 37, 122 

Heroic Age, in Greece 73, 74 

Herzegovina (h6rt-se-go-ve'na), re- 
volts 547 

incoiporated in Austria-Hungary . 548 
He'siod, Greek poet . . . 118, note; 121 
Hes'se, concessions granted to . . , 516 
Hestia, Greek goddess . . 119, note; 125 

Hieroglyphics, described 24 

deciphered 25 

Hil'debrand (Gregory VII.) . . 284, 285 

Hinduism 61 

Hindu-Kush Mountains 16 

Hindus, language of 16, 54 

oriental race . , 21 

settle in India 56, 57 

of India, mutiny of 543 

HIppar'elms, Athenian ruler ... 88 

Hip'pias, Athenian ruler 88 

Hiram, King of Tyre 46, 49 



PAGE 

Hispaniola, Haiti called 331 

History, defined, kinds of .... 11 

uses of 13, 14 

periods of i8 

ancient 21-202 

sacred ..... 44 

mediaeval 203-321 

modern 323-563 

Hittites, war with so 

conquered by Assyrians .... 40 
Hoang-Ho River, valley of .... 22 

Hoche, General 47 

Hohenlin'den, Moreau's victory at . 491 
Hohenstaufen, imperial house . 316, 317 
Hohenzollern, imperial house . . . 435 

Holland, early history of 377 

revolt of Netherlands 379 

joins Union of Utrecht ..... 381 

freedom of 382 

colonial possessions of 383 

independence recognized .... 401 
war with France . . . . . 406, 407 
alliance with Sweden and England, 

407, 428 
alliance with Spain and Germany, 408 
joins League of Augsburg .... 410 

France conquers. . . " 483 

Louis Bonaparte, King of ... . 495 

united to France 497 

Belgium united to 513 

France aids Belgians against . . . 520 
Holstein (hol'stin), Duke of ... . 503 
Holstein-Schleswig (shlaz'vig) ques- 
tion 536,537 

Holy Alliance, principles of . . 505, 506 

Congress of Verona 507 

influence of 508 

Alexander I., founder of ... . 510 

character of 517 

Holy Brotherhood 340 

Holy Land, crusades to 263 

Seljuks occupy 260 

privilege of worship in 530 

See Crusades. 

Holy League, formed 357 

fight with Politiques 391 

loses ground 394 

Tilly commands force o." . . . . 3£8 
Holy Ptoman Empire . . . -25, 283, 315 

dissolved 494 

Holy See, removed to Avignon . . .292 
Ferdinand of Spain allieil with . . 340 
Napoleon's agreement with . . . 490 
Holy Sepulcher, quarrels over posses- 
sion of key to 530 

Homage, defined 277 



586 



GENEKAL HISTORY. 



PAGE 

Home Rule agitation, in Ireland, 545, 546 

Homur, Greek poet 74, 121 

Hi^ngkons, Great Britain gains foot- 
hold in 562 

Hono'rius, Roman emperor . . 187, 188 
Hooker, Richard, English writer . . 375 

Horace, Roman poet 171 

Hora'tii, combat with Curiatii . . .130 
Horatius, legend about . . . 130, 131 

Horeb, Mount, Moses on 45 

Horn, Count 378 

Horsa, Jntish chieftain 193 

Hi uus, Egyptian god 32 

Hotel des Invalides (6-tel'da z.iN-va- ] 

led') 465 I 

Hottentots, classification -17 

House of Commons, beginning of . . 305 j 

power of, exalted 453 i 

members of 516 

House of Lords, change in . . 362, 363 

- abolished 425 

Howard, English admiral . . . .372 

lliibertstuirg, treaty of 441 

Hudson Bay territory, English acquire, 414 

Hiiiiuenots, persecution 384 

toleration granted .... 388, 393 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 389, 391 

Edict of JS antes 394 

deprived of political power . . . 404 
<levices to convert .... 409, 410 

leave France 410 

welcomed in Prussia 437 

Hun 1 red Years' war .... 306-314 
Crucy aiul Poitiers .... 306, 813 
tre;ity of Bretigny .... 308, 313 
battle of Agincourt .... 308, 313 I 

be;j inning of 312 

Calais captured 313 

treaty of Troyes 313 

successful issue of 337 

Himdreds, Assembly of the ,. . . .134 
Hungarians, classification .... 17 

incursions 315, 558 

capture Bavarian capital .... 439 

revolt 528 

Hungary, Turkish victory in ... 344 

Jesuits in 367 

independent local government . . .538 
Austria-Hungarian Empire estab- 
lished 538 

Huns, defeat Ostrogoths 185 

home of 186 

invr.sion 194 

characteristics 194 

westward movement checked . . 559 
Huss, John, reforms of 293 



PAGE 
Huss, John, Luther upholds .... 3.53 
Hydas'pes River, battle of .... 114 
Hyksos (hik'soz), expulsion of . . 26, 29 

rule of 28, 29 

Hyph'asis, Alexander the Great at . 114 

Iceland, Northmen settle in . . 244, 250 

Ides of March 165 

Iliad, Homer's 57, 74 

story of 7.J 

H'ium (Troy), siege of 75 

Illy'ria, Alaric in 188 

"Immortals," Persian troops ... 95 

Immunities, defined 277 

Imperial power, decay of 289 

Incas, Peruvian rulers 329 

Independents, doctrines of ... . 374 

growing power of 423 

India, Aryans invade, early inhabi- 
tants of, geogiaphical situation . 56 

nature worship in 57 

])eriod of expansion in ..... 57 

caste system in 58 

Brahmanism in 58, 59 

Buddhism in 59, 60 

Gi*eek conquest of 61 

arts ill 61 

commerce in 62, 325 

Alexander's invasion of . . . 113,114 
search for northwest passage to, 3?6-328 

Portuguese Empire in 330 

French conquest in 460 

British power in, established . 542, 543 

government of 543 

Indian Mutiny 543 

Indians, Nia-th American, civilization 

of 15 

origin of name 328 

Indies, origin of name 328 

Council of the 331 

Indra, Indian god 57 

Indulgence, Declaration of ... . 431 

Indus River, valley of 22 

Alexander the Great at 114 

Industry, in Bronze Age 15 

in Stone Age 15 

in Iron Age 15 

Ingria, ceded to Russia 447 

Inkermann', l)attle of 531 

Innocent III., Pope, contest of, with 
Philip Augustus of France and 
John of England . . . 290, 291, 303 
crusade against Albigenses, 

291, 292, 310, 311 

deposes Otto lY 317 

Inns'bruck, imperial court removed to, 524 



INDEX. 



587 



PAGE 

Inquisition, in colonies 331 

in Spain 340 

methods of 367 

Institutes of Christian Beligion, Cal- 
vin's 364 

Intellectual history 11 

Intei-reg'num, in Germany .... 318 

Inventions, Chinese 56 

Investiture, war of 285 

Ion, son of Hell en 73 

Ionian cities, revolt of 91 

freedom of 98 

Athenian alliance with 99 

treaties with Aristides 100 

Ionians,Greeli tribe 73 

settlements of 78 

Ionic columns, in architecture . . .123 

Ipsus, battle of 115 

Iran (e-ran'), table-lands of .... 22 

Medes and Persians in 64 

Ireland, Northmen settle in . . 244, 251 
English invasion of ... . 301, 302 
Scotch and English colonies in . . 417 
opposition to new government . . 433 
colonists in, resist Catholics . . . 433 

grievances of 544, 545 

Home Rule bill defeated in , . . 546 

Land question in 5t6, 547 

Iron Age 14, 15 

Isabel, wife of Edward II. . . 312, note 
Isabella, Queen of Spain . . . 259, 340 

aids Columbus 327 

Ish'tar, Babylonian goddess .... 43 

Isidor'ian Decre'tals 233 

I'sis, Egyptian goddess 32 

I§'lam. See Mohammedanism. 

Isoc'rates, Greek orator 122 

Israel, kingdom of 46, 47 

Issus, battle of 112, 209 

Isth'niian festivals ....... 120 

Isthmus, of Corinth, Dorians overrun, 85 
of Panama, Balboa crosses . . . 328 
Italian cities, growing independence ■ 

of 288, 289, 317 

right of self-government .... 289 
Venice, Florence, independence of, 

320, 321 

commerce with East 325 

Italian Independence, war of, 344,533, 534 
Italian unity, plan for .... 532, 533 

Italian war 157 

Italians, race .16 

origin of 127 

divisions of 128 

right of vote granted to .... 155 
citizenship of 157 



PAGE 

Italy, four races of 127 

Aeneas founds kingdom in . . . 129 

Hatuiibal in 146 

military roads in 152 

Caesar master of 163 

Attila in 195 

Ostrogothic kingdom in .... 207 
reannexed to Eastern Empire . . 208 

Lombards invade 210 

divided government in 215 

German claims in 219, 225 

Pope made ruler of 232 

lawlessness in 242 

Northmen settle in 244 

Henry IV. invades 286 

and Germany 314-321 

Normans in 319 

Francis I. invades 342 

Austriau rule over . . 344, 503, 508 

invaded by French 344 

Napoleon's success in . . . 485, 490 
revolution in . 508, 515, 518, 525, 527 

unitication of 535 

African policy of 551 

Ithaca 75 

Ivan (e-van) III. (the Great), Czar of 

Russia 443 

Ivan IV., the Terrible 443 

Ivry (ev-re'), battle of 393 

Jac'obins, principles of 467 

in Legislative Assembly . . . .471 

in National Convention 475 

control government 477 

control Committee of Public Safety, 477 

fall of 482 

Jacobites, defeat of . 452 

Jail delivery 473 

Jamaica, discovered 327 

Spain loses 426 

James, Pretender . 452 

James I., King of England (James VI. 

of Scotland) 398, 416 

Gunpowder Plot under . , . 416, 417 

and Parliament 416, 417 

James II., dethroned .... 410, 416 

reign of 430-432 

Jameson, Dr., raid under 550 

Ja'nus, temple of 172 

Japan, Buddhists in 61 

Mikados in 559 

government in 560, 561 

Christianity introduced in ... 561 

war with China 561 

Jarnac (zhar-nak'), battle of ... 387 
Java, Buddhism in 61 



588 



GENEEAL HISTORY. 



PAGE 

Jaxartes (jSks-ar'tez) River . 16, 66, 116 

Jeffreys, Chief Justice 430 

Jemapes (zha-map'), battle of . . . 474 

Jena (ya'na), battle of 494 

University of 509 

Jeph'tha, Hebrew leader 45 

Jerez (ha'retli) de la Froutera, battle 

of 257 

Jerusalem, Sennacherib fails to cap- 
ture 40 

captured by Nebuchadnezzar . 41, 47 

capital of Jews 45, 46 

during Solomon's reign 46 

Jewish exiles return to 66 

Romans capture 175 

temple of, destroyed 175 

capital of Patriarchate 230 

crusaders capture 265 

Idngdom of, formed .... 265, 266 

Saladin captures 268 

captured by infidels 272 

surrendered to Christians .... 272 

Jesuits, activity of 331 

Order of 366 

Jews, conquered by Assyrians ... 40 
made captives in Babylonia ... 41 

mission of 43 

return to Jerusalem 66 

massacre of . „ 175 

property of, confiscated .... 310 

extortions from 311 

Inquisition against .... 340, 367 
See Hebreics. 
Jhelum (je'lum) River, battle of . . 113 
Jimmu Tenno, Japanese hero . . . 560 

Joan of Arc, victories of 313 

frees France 333 

heroism of 337 

John, Don, of Austria .... 380, 381 
John, King of England, contest with 
Pope Innocent III. . . . 290, 291 

foreign possessions of 302 

relation with church 303 

struggle with Barons 303 

loses English possessions in France, 310 
John Frederick, elector of Saxony . 347 
John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, 

308, note 
John I,, King of France . . 309, note 

John II 312, note 2 

John II., King of Portugal .... 327 

Jonson, English author 375 

Joseph, settles in Goshen 44 

Jourdan (zhuor-dON'), French gen- 
eral « 477 

" Joyous Entry " 467 



PAGE 

Judah, kingdom of, formed .... 46 
Judaism, rise of, among Semites . . 17 

Judges, Book of 49 

Jugur'tha, war with Rome .... 156 
Juffurthirie War, Sal lust's . . . .171 
Julian the Apostate, Ronnin emperor, 180 
July Revolution, in France . . . .513 
.Juno, Roman goddess . 119, note ; 199 
Jupiter, Roman god . . 118, note ; 199 
Justin'ian I., Eastern emperor . . .208 

death of 209 

Jutes, Teutonic tribe 186 

invade Britain 193, 246 

Ju'vcnal, Roman satirist 172 



Ka'aba, temple of 253 

Kadi'jah, marries Mohammed . . . 253 

Karnak, temple at 30 

Kars, in Armenia, restored to Tuikey, 532 

Pi,ussians capture 548 

Kern, Egypt called 23 

Kent, converted 246 

Khartum (kar-toom'), battle near . . 551 

Khu'fu, tomb of 33 

Khyber (Ki'ber'i Pass, English retreat 

through 543 

Kiao-Chau, Germany acquires . . . 561 
Kitchener, English general . . . .551 
Kleber, French general . . . 478, 488 

Knighthood 280,281 

Knights Hospitalers, or Knights uf St. 

John 267 

Knights Templars 267 

suppressed 312 

Knox, .John, Calvinist preacher . . 37 
Koniggratz (ke'nig-grats), battle of . 538 
Ko'ran, Mohannnedan Bible . . 254-256 

Kore'a, independence of 561 

Koreish, Arabian high priests . . . 253 

Kosciusko (kos-si-us'ko) 450 

Kossuth (kosh'oot), Hungarian leader, 528 
Kotzebue (kot'seh-boo), murdered . £09 
Kriidener (krii'deh-ner), Frau von . . 505 
Kshat'riyas, Indian caste ..... 58 
Kublai Khan (koo'bli kan), founds 

Mongol Empire in China . . . 560 
Kurdistan (koor-dis-tan'), Assyrian 
conquests in S9 

La Rochelle, siege of 404 

La Vendue (la v5N-da'), revolt of peas- 
ants in 473, 478 

Labrador, explored 328 

Laconia, conquered by Sparta ... 83 
\ coast of, ravaged ....... 107 



INDEX. 



589 



PAGE 
Ladrones, island in, ceded to United 

States 557 

Lafayette, commander of National 

Guard 464, 467 

Lalbach (li'baK), congress at . 508, 517 
Lake Moeris (nie'ris), reservoir at . . 28 
Lake Trasume'nus, battle of ... . 147 
Lamachus, commander in Sicilian ex- 
pedition 106 

Lamartine, agitation for universal 

suffrage 521, 522 

Lancaster, House of 308, 336 

Lancastrians, badge of 334 

Land Act, in Ireland 546 

Langobards (Lombards), kingdom of, 209 
Langton, Stephen, Archbishop of Can- 
terbury 291, 303 

Language, basis of race classification, 13,15 
Laou-Tse, founder of Taoism ... 55 

La'res, defined 198 

Laris'sa, Greeks repulsed at . . . . 553 
Las Casas (las kaz), Bishop of Mexico, 331 

Latimer, Bishop 370 

Latin America 558 

Latin Cities, League of, dissolved . . 139 
Latin Empire, established . . 270, 320 

Latin franchise, defined 142 

Latin States, revolt of 139 

Latins, home of 128 

wars with Rome 135 

right of vote granted to 155 

La'tium, Latins in ....... 128 

conquest of 131 

Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury . . 420 
Law, J ohn, Mississippi Scheme,452, 457,458 

League, Achaean 116 

i^etolian 116 

of Thirty Cities 129 

Lombard 289 

of Smalkald 347,357,308 

Holy 357, 391, 394, 398 

of Augsburg 410 

Leaguers, routed 393 

Learning, related branches of ... 12 

crusades stimulate 273 

Frederick II. of Germany encour- 
ages 318 

revival of 323, 3,il 

Elizabethan era , 3/5 

Ledru-Rollin (leh-dru' ro-ia^N) . 521,522 
Lefort, Swiss adviser to Peter . . . 444 

Legion of Honor 499 

Legislative Assembly, in France . , 471 

parties in 471 

end of 474 

Legna'no, battle of 289 



PAGE 
Leipzig (lip'tslK), disputation at . . 353 

Tilly defeated at 400 

battle of 500 

Leo, Bishop of Rome 195 

Leo III., Pope, crowns Charlemagne, 225 

Leo the Great 231 

Leo X., and Luther 353 

Leon, Christian state in Spain . . . 339 

Leon'idas, Spartan king r5 

Leopold, Emperor of Germany . . . 411 
Leopold, Prince of Hoheuzollerii, 

Spanish crown offered to . . . 538 
Leopold I., King of Belgium .... 514 
Lep'ridus, Antony and Octavius, Sec- 
ond Triumvirate 167 

governor of Africa 168 

Lesser Antilles, discovered .... 327 

Leuc'tra, battle of 110 

Leuthen (loi'ten), battle of . . . .441 

Leyden (li'den), siege of 380 

L'Hopital (16-pe-tal'), French lawyer, 388 
Liberalism, repressed in Germany, 

508, 509, 516 
Liberal-Unionists, oppose Rome Rule 

in Ireland . . „ 546 

Liberum Veto, principle of ... . 449 

Licin'ian Law 135, 1C5 

Licin'ius, Roman emperor .... 180 

Liege, power of 275 

Liegeman, defined 275 

Life of Charlcmngne 227 

Lig-Bagas, Babylonian king .... 38 

Ligny (len-ye), battle of 501 

Lilybae'nm, Roman victory at . . . 144 

Lima, University at 331 

Lionel, Duke of Clarence, son of Ed- 
ward III 308, n<,te; 333 

Liris River, boundary of Latium . . 128 
Literature, in ancient Asia and Africa, 22 

in ancient Egypt 28 

Phoenician 52 

of Persians 69 

of Greeks 121-123 

of Iceland 251 

effect of chivalry on 282 

Elizabethan age 375 

French 404, 461, 462 

of Queen Anne's reign . . . 434, 435 
Lithua'nla, united to Poland. . . .449 
Little St. Bernard Pass, Hannibal 

crosses 146 

Livonia, ceded to Russia 447 

Livy, Roman historian . . . 138, 171 

Lodi (16'de), battle of 485 

Loire (Iwar) River, boundary of Visi- 
gotliic kingdom in Spain . . .190 



590 



GENERAL HISTORY. 



PAGE 

Loire Eiver, boundary of Frankish 

kingdom 205 

prisoners drowned in 481 

Lombard League, formeci .... 289 

Lombards, invade Italy 210 

encroach on church ...... 215 

threaten kingdom of Franks . . . 218 

adopt Christianity 219 

Charlemagne, King of '219 

end of kingdom of 219 

Lombardy, Napoleon in 485 

Austrians driven from . . . 5.5, 534 

ceded to Sardinia 5.34 

London, peasants enter 307 

plague in • . . . 428 

great fire of 428 

treaty of 511 

Long Parliament, summoned . . . 420 

Longwy, captured 473 

Lords and vassals, relation of . 2.6,277 
Lords, House of, change in . . 362, 363 

abolished 425 

Lorenzo de' MeJici (mgd'e-chee) . . 321 

Lorraine' (Loth'ringen) 239 

Lothair II., rulerof 239 

reannexed to Germany . . . 31i, 402 

France acquires part of 401 

Germany acquires part of ... . 540 
Lothair', son of Louis the Pious . . 236 
Lothair II., King of Lotharingia . . 233 

dominion of 237, 238 

Lothair of Saxony, German emperor . S16 
Li)tharii Eegnum (Lothair s kingdom), 239 
Lotliarin'gia. See Lorraine. 
Lothringen. See Lorraine. 
Louis, Prince, son of Philip Augustus, 304 

Louis, Prince of Conde 385 

Louis the Child, last Carolingian, 240, 314 
Louis the German, dominion of, 287, 238 

Louis the Pious 236 

Louis VI., King of France . . 309, note 

Louis VII., leads second ci'usade . . 267 

defeated by Turks . . . 268, 309, note 

Louis VII 1 309, note 

Louis IX. (Saint Louis), crusade of, 

272, 311, 309, note 
crown of England promised to . . 310 

Louis X 3 j9, note 

Louis XI 312, nute 2 ; 335 

character 337 

struggle with nobles, with Charles 

the Bold 338 

Louis XII 312, note 2 

Louis XIII 403 

Louis XIV., France leading nation . 404 
Mazarin 405 



PAGB 
Louis XIV., Avar with Spain .... 406 

war with Holland 407,408 

called Grand Monarch 408 

measures agaijist Huguenots . . . 409 

war of the Palatinate 410 

war of Spanish Succession . 411-413 

treaty of Utrecht 413 

condition of France 414 

debt of 457 

Louis XV., regency in France . . . 457 

foreign policy 460 

Louis XVI., taxation 462 

States-General 463 

attempts to escape 468 

trial and execution .... 475, 476 

Louis XVIII. 500 

driven from throne .501 

policy of 506 

Louis Philippe .... 512, 519, 521 
Louis (loo'e) Napoleon Bonaparte 
(Napoleon III.), President of 
French Republic .... 522, 523 

policy of 525 

new Constitution 526 

Emperor of French 526 

See Napoleon III. 

Louisiana, French colony 458 

Louvois (loo-vwa'), French war minis- 
ter 407, 411 

Loyola, Ignatius, head of Jesuits . . 366 

Lubeck (lu'bfek), peace of 399 

Luea'nians, join Samnites .... 140 
not admitted to citizenship . . .157 

Luck'now, siege of . 543 

Lucre' tius, Roman poet 171 

Lusita'nians, war with Rome . . .152 
Luther, Martin, defies Roman Catho- 
lic Church 342 

death 347 

life of 352 

and the Pope 353 

burns papal bull 354 

character of :,57, 358 

Henry VII r. writes against . . .360 
Lutherans, alliance with Francis I. . 345 

Lutter, battle of 398 

Lut'zen, battle of ........ 400 

Luxembourg (liiks-ON-boor'), French 

leader 411 

Lux'emburg, France purchases . . . 538 

Lux'or, temple at 30 

Lyeur'gus, Spartan sage ..... 79 

Lydia, rival of Media 64 

Cyrus the Great conquers .... 65 

merged into Persian Empire ... 91 

Lysan'der, Spartan admiral . . .107 



INDEX. 



591 



PAGE 

Lyons, opposes Jacobins 477 

executions at 481 

Mac'cabees, Hebrew revolt under . . 47 
Macedonia, conquers Greece ... 77 

supremacy of Ill 

fall of 117 

Roman conquest of ... . 149, 150 

victory at Philippi 168 

Greeks in 553 

Macedonian phalanx, described . . 113 
Macedonians, character and liome of, 111 
MacMahon (mak-ma-oN'), Marshal . 539 
Macri'nus, Roman emperor . . . .178 

Mad Parliament 335 

Madeira, discovered 326 

Madrid', treaty of . 343 

Joseph Bonaparte driven from . . 496 
Maece'nas, patron of literature . . . 172 
Mag'adha (South Behar), Indian state, 57 
Magdeburg (maG'de-booro'), siege 

of 399 

Magellan, sails around the world, 

328, 329 

Straits of, discovered 329 

Ma'gi, Persian priestly class .... 68 
Mag'na€har'ta (Great Charter), signed, 304 
Magna Graecia (gre'shia), Greeks in, 127 

Magne'sia, battle of 150 

Magyars (mo'dyorz), incursions of . 559 

Mah'dist revolt 551 

Maine, claimed by England . . . .302 

France acquires 303, 339 

Maine, United States battleship, de- 
stroyed in Havana harbor . . . 556 
Mainz (mints). Archbishop of, elector, 319 

Major Donius, duties of 213 

Maju'ba Hill, British attacked at . . 550 

Malays, classification of 17 

Malcolm, King of Scotland . . . .299 

Malian Gulf 71, 95 

Malplaquet (mal-pla-ka'), battle of . 413 
Malta, French capture ...... 487 

England refuses to relinquish . . 493 
Mam'elukes, Napoleon conquers . . 487 
Mam'ertines, seize Messana .... 143 

Manchn Tartars, in China .... 560 

Manchuria, Russia gains foothold in . 562 
Mandeville, Sir John, travels of . . 325 
Man'etho, Egyptian priest .... 24 

i^ianhattan Island, Dutch colony at, 383 
Manila, Dewey's victory at . . . .556 

Manitoba', government of ... . 559 

Man'lius, R<iman patrician .... 138 

Mansfeld, Count, Protestant leader . 398 
Mantine'a, battle of 106 



PAGE 

Man'uel, Eastern emperor . . . .267 
Marat (ma-ra'), member of Cordeliurs, 4b7 

Jacobin leader 475 

killed 479 

Mar'athon, battle of . . . 66, 90, 92, 93 
Marburg, meeting of refoimers at . 356 
Marchand (mar-shON'), Major . . .551 

Marco Polo, voyage of 325 

Marcoman'ni, German tribe . . 184, 186 
Mardu'nius, Persian general . . 91, 98 
Margaret, Queen of England . . . 333 

Margaret of Naples 312 

Margaret of Parma 378 

Margaret of Valnis, marries Henry of 

Navarre 388 

Maria Theresa (te-ree'sa), Austrian 

empress 439 

aided by England 454 

Marie Antoinette, executed . . . .479 
Mar'ius, Gaiu^, Roman general . 156-158 
Marlborough, Duke of . . 412, 413, 434 
Marriage customs, in Greece . 124, 125 
Mars, Roman god . 118, note; 129, 199 
Marseilles (miir-salz'), children's cru- 
sade reaches 271 

Marston Moor, battle of 424 

Martial, Roman writer 172 

Martin V., Pope ........ 293 

Mary de' Medici (med'e-chee) . . . 403 
Mary, Queen, wife of William of Or- 
ange 432, 433 

Mary of Modena, wife of Jamts II. . 432 
Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, abdi- 
cates 371 

executed 372 

wife of Francis II 385 

Mary Tudor, Queen of England 

(Bloody Mary) 369, 370 

Masinissa, Roman ally 15 J 

Massena (ma-se-na'), French general, 498 
Matilda, daughter of Henry I. . . 298 

Matilda, wife of Henry 1 297 

Maurice, Duke of Saxony . . 347, 348 
Maxen'tius, claims Roman throne . 1,9 
Maxim'ian, Roman emperor . . .178 
Maximilian II., German emperor . . 397 
Maxinii'nus, Roman emperor . 178, note 
Mayor of the palace, duties of . . . 213 
Mazavin (ma-za-raJJ), Cardinal , . 405 
Mazzini (mat-see'nec), Italian pa- 
triot •'"1I5 

Measures, knowledge of, in Babylon . 42 

Mecca, Arabia's chief city .... 253 

Mohammed driven from .... 254 

Mohammed captures 255 

Media, Esar-haddon enters .... 40 



592 



GENEKAL HISTOKY. 



PAGE 

Media, captures Nineveh .... 41 

conquered by Persians 42 

geoyrapliical location 64 

dependence on Assyria 64 

conquests under Cyaxares ... 64 
conquered by Cyrus the Great . 64. 65 

kingdom overthrown 65 

Mediaeval history .... 18, 203-321 
Medici (ni6d'e-chee) family, in Italy . 321 
Medina (ma-de'na), Mohanmied flees 

to 254 

Medina Sidonia, Duke, commander of 

Spanish Armada 372 

Mediterranean Sea, Carthasinians re- 
linquish islands in 14S 

pirates of 159, 192, 345 

Venice controls trade of .... 271 
Meg'ara, Dorians capture .... 85 
Megas'thenes, account of India . . 61 
Mehemet Ali (ma'heh-meta'lee), Vice- 
roy of Egypt 520 

victories of 529 

Melanch'thon, Philip 353 

Melane'sians, classification of ... 17 

Me'los, Austrian general 490 

Memphis, capital of Egypt .... 27 

temples at 30 

captured 66 

Mgnela'us, Greek king 75 

Menelek, Abyssinian king . . . .551 
Me'ne§, founder of Egyptian Empire, 26 

first pharaoh 27 

Mercury, Roman god . . 118, note ; 199 
Mero'veus, ancestor of Franks . . . 205 
Mgr'ovin'gians, Frank is! i kings, 

205, 212, 214 

Mer'seburg, battle of 315 

Mesopota'mia 22 

Assyrians conquer 39 

Moliammedans in 256 

Messa'na, seized 143 

Messe'nia, Dorians found 79 

war with 83 

revolt of 101 

Metel'lns, Quintus, Roman general, 156 
Metternich (m6t'er-niK), Prince, Aus- 
trian minister 508 

represses liberalism . . 508, 509, 516 

policy of 517 

flees to England 524 

Metz (mgts), French surrender . . 540 
Mexico, Spaniards conquer .... 329 

university 331 

mines of 332 

independence of 558 

Michael, Czar of Russia 443 



PAGE 
Middle Ages, history of . . 18, 203-321 

term defined 203 

influences in 204 

society in 275-282 

Mid'ianites, Hebrews conquer ... 45 
Migrations, of Greek tribes .... 77 

Mika'dos, descent of 560 

regain power 561 

Milan', Edict of 179 

destroyed 289 

Charles V. claims .342 

lost to France 342 

Spain loses 414 

Milan Decree, issued 495 

Miles, General, occupies Puerto Rico, 557 

Military system, in Rome 198 

Military tribunes 134 

Milti'ades, Athenian general . . 92, 93 
Mincio (min'cho), Austria retains dis- 
trict east of 534 

Minerva, Roman goddess, 119, note; 199 

Ming dynasty, in China 560 

Minor'ca, England acquires .... 414 
Mirabeau (me-ra-bo'), French states- 
man 470 

Mississippi Bubble 460 

Mississippi Company . . . 4r.8, 459, 460 
Missolonghi (mis-so-lOn'ge), Byron's 

death at 510 

Mithrida'tes, King of Pontns . 157, 158 

overthrown l.^iO 

Mo'al)ites, Hebrews conquer ... 45 

Modeiia (m5d'a-na), revolution in. . 515 

Austrian government overthrown . 525 

Modern history 18, 323-563 

Modern nations, rise of 324 

Moeris (me'ris) Lake, reservoir at . . 28 
Moesia (me'shia), Goths invade 184, 185 
Moeso-Gothic version of Bible . . . 186 

Mo'hacs, victory of 344 

Moham'med, founds Mohammedan- 
ism 252 

early life and visions of .... 253 

as conqueror 254 

Mohammedan Empire, division of . 258 
Mohammedanism, Semitic origin of,17, 252 

spread of 252, 256 

essence of 255 

in Spain 258 

Mohammedans, invade Spain and 

Gaul 214 

rise of power 252-259 

defeated at Ascalun 266 

persecution of 340 

of India, mutiny 543 

Moirae, Greek divinities ..... 119 



INDEX. 



593 



PAGE 
Molda'via, seized by Russia .... 450 

Mo'loeh, Phoenician god ...... 52 

Moluc'ca Islands, explored .... 329 

Monarchy, absolute, in Rome . . .198 

rise of 324, 333-340 

in England 335, 336 

In France 339 

in Spain 340 

in Prussia 438 

Monasteries, service to learning . . 234 

suppression of 362 

Monasticism 233, 234 

Mongol Empire, in China 560 

Mongols, classification of .... 17 

in Central Asia 22 

invade Russia 442 

Monk, English general . . . • . 427 

Monks, life of 233 

Monmouth, Duke of, claims English 

throne 430 

Monroe Doctrine 518 

Montene'gro.aids Bosnia and Herzego- 
vina 547 

independence recognized .... 548 
Montesquieu (moN-t6s-ke-u'), French 

author 461 

Montferrat (moN-fer-ra'), Marquis, in 

fourth crusade 269 

Moore, Sir John, English general . . 497 

Moors, civilization of 18 

in Spain 222, 258 

destroy Visigothic kingdom . . . 339 

lose Granada 340 

Morals, history of ....... 11 

Morat (mo-ra'), battle of 338 

Moravia, Jesuits in 367 

More'a, division of Greece .... 72 
Moreau (mo-ro'), French general . . 490 

Morgar'ten, battle of 319 

Mori'ah, Mount, temple on .... 46 
Mortimer's Cross, battle of ... . 333 
Mos'cow, Russian capital .... 442 

burning of 499 

Mogelle', Germany claims lands in . 239 

Moses, Jewish lawgiver 44 

divine mission of 255 

Moslems. See Mohammedans. 

Mosque of Omar, Mohammedans retain, 272 

Mount Athos, Persian fleet at ... 91 

Mount Ho'reb, Moses on 45 

Mount Mori'ah, temple in .... 46 

Mount Oeta (e'ta) ; 95 

Moimt Olym'pus, home of Greek gods, 118 

Mount Pentel'icus . 92 

Mount Ta-yg'e-tus, Spartans exposed 
on 80 



PAGE 

Mountain, in Legislative Assembly . 471 

in National Convention . . . .475 

Miihrberg, battle of 348 

Mumnnus, Roman consul 150 

Munda, battle of 164 

Mus'covite kingdom 4-13 

Muses, Gieek goddesses 119 

Museum, in Egypt, founded .... 116 

Music, in Egypt 34 

Myc'ale, naval battle of 98 

Myce'nae, Agamemnon, King of . . 75 
My'lae, battle of 143 

Nabon'idus, Babylonian king ... 42 

Niifels (na'fels), battle of 319 

Nancy (n5N-se'), battle near . . . .338 

Nantes (n6Nt), Edict of 394 

revoked 410 

executions at 481 

Naples, possession of Charles V. . . 341 

France relinquishes 343 

Spain loses 414 

Joseph Bonaparte acquires . . . 494 
Ferdinand IV. acquii'es .... 503 
new constitution proclaimed . . 508 

revolution in 515 

government of 534 

joins Sardinia 535 

Napoleon Bonaparte, pas age of the 

Alps 146 

artillery officer 478 

repulses Parisian mob 483 

military ambition .... 485, 486 

early life of 485 

power of .... 488 

attacks Austria 490 

battle of Marengo .... 490, 491 
victories at Ulm and Austerlitz . . 493 

humiliates Prussia 494 

in Russia 494 

master of Europe 494 

at height of power 495 

empire of 497 

loses Spain 498 

invades Russia 499 

abdicates 500, 501 

returns from Elba .... 500, 501 
"Battle of the Nations" . . . . 500 

death 502 

result of career 502 

Napoleon III., Emperor of Fiance . 527 
war of Italian Independence . . .533 

and Cavour 533 

and Prussia . .' 538 

surrenders to Germans 540 

See Louis Napoleon Bonaparte. 



594 



GENEEAL HISTORY. 



PAGE 

Narbudda River 56 

Nar'se§, general in East 208 

conquests in Italy 209 

at Ravenna 210 

Narva, battle of 446 

Naseby, battle of 424 

National Assjmbly, in France . . . 464 

reforms of 466 

at Paris 467 

end of 469 

members chosen for 522 

draws up constitution of republic . 522 

meets at Frankfort 524 

dissolved 526, 527 

National Convention, France under 

rule of 474-484 

National Covenant, Scotch sign . . 420 
National Guard, in France .... 464 

Lafayette, leader of 467 

disperse mob in Paris 522 

National workshops, set up . . . . 522 
Naval power, of Athens . 94, 99, 102, 107 
Navarino (na-va-ree'no), battle of . 511 
Navarre (na-vai-'), Christian state in 

Spain 339 

King of, arrested 886 

Nebu-ehadn6z'zar, Babylonian king . 41 

captures Jerusalem 47 

Necker, French minister 462 

Neerwinden (nar'vin-den), Ijattle of . 476 
Ne-gri'to§, classification of .... 17 
Negroes, African, classification of . 17 

Negroid race, division of 17 

Nelson, destroys French fleet . . . 487 

naval successes of 493 

Neme'an festivals 120 

Nem'esis, Greek divinity 119 

Nepal (na-pal'), Buddhists in ... 61 
Neptune, Roman goij .... 118, 199 
Ne'reids, Greek diviirities .... 119 
Nero, Roman emperor . . . 173, 174 

Ner'va, Roman emperor 177 

Netherlands, Charles V. ;governs, 341, 377 
Spanisli .... . 346, 347, 407, 414 

geography 377 

Philip II. rules 377, 378 

Alva's government of . . . 378, 379 

revolt of 379 

William of Orange 379 

siege of Leyden 380 

religion in 381 

Pacification of Ghent 381 

Union of Utrecht 381 

independence of . ' 382 

war with Spain 403 

Austrian 474, 486, 503 



PAGE 

Netherlands, kingdom of, formed . . :03 
New Brunswick, government of . . 562 
New Forest, William IT. murdered in, 297 
Newfoundland, England acquires . . 414 
New South Wales, British settle . . 558 
New Testament, principles of . . . 506 

New World, discovery of 328 

New York, Dutch colony in ... . 383 
Newspaper, first in England . . . .435 

Ney (na), French general 501 

Nicae'a, capital of Seljuks .... 260 

captured 264 

Nice (nes), truce of 346 

French overrun 474 

ceded to France 534 

Nicholas I., Czar of Russia, favors 

Greeks 510 

conquers Poland 514 

war with Turkey 529-532 

death 532 

Nicholas II., peace proposal of, 562, 563 

Nicias, truce of 105 

Athenian leader 105 

commander of Sicilian expedition . 106 
Nieraen (ne'men) River, peace of Til- 
sit formed on 494 

Niger, French and English victory on, 551 

Nile, valley of 22, 23 

battle of the 487 

French and English rivalry over . 551 
Nimrod, ancestor of Babylonians . . 38 
Nimwegen (nim'vagen), treaty of . . 408 

Nirm, Columbus' ship 327 

Nln'eveh, palace at 40 

captured by Medes 41 

commercial city . 43 

battle of 209 

Nirvana (neervah'na), in Buddhism, 60 

Nobles, aim of 279 

decline of power 334 

repression of 337 

loss of power in Spain 340 

emigrate from France 4(8 

Non-Aryan races, civilization of . 17, 18 
Norman Conquest, effects of . 13, 250 

Norman dukes, power of 246 

Norman kings 295-299 

Normandy, settled by Northmen . . 241 

granted to Northmen 245 

wealth of 246 

Ethelred flees to 249 

H-enry I. invades 298 

English possession 302 

France acquires 303 

Normans, Northmen called . . . .245 
French Northmen 251 



INDEX. 



595 



PAGE 

Normans, in Italy 319 

North America, discoveries iu . 323-327 

claims of discovery of 328 

Raleigh explores 375 

Northmen, plunder France .... 240 

besiege Paris 240 

incursions of 243, 244 

home of 244 

countries settled by 244 

origin of 244 

settlements of . . . 244-246, 250, 251 

religion of 245 

invade France 245 

attack England 247 

in Russia 250 

in Iceland 250, 251 

in British Isles 251 

in North America 328 

See Danea and Normatis. 
Northumlnia, Oswy, Ki.ig of . . . 247 

Norway, Northmen in 244 

war with Sweden 447 

imited to Sweden 503 

Nottingham, royal standard set up at, 423 
Nova Scotia, England acquires . . .414 

government of 562 

Novara, battle of 527 

NOv'gorOd, capital of Nurthme.i , .250 

Nubians, conquered 28 

Nu'ma Pompil'ius, Roman king . . 130 
Numan'tia, capital of Celtiberians . 152 
Numeria'nus, Roman emperor . 178, note 
Numidia, King of, joins Scipio . . .148 

Jugurtha, ruler of 156 

NU'rembeig, peace of ... . 345, 357 

Holy League at 357 

Hohenzollerns govern in ... . 435 
Nystadt (ne'stat), peace of . . . .447 

Gates, Titus, reports of 429 

O'Connell, Daniel, Irish agitator . . 545 
Octa'vius (Gains Julius Caesar), in 

Second Triumvirate 167 

governor of the West liS 

at Actium 168 

power of 169 

O'do of Paris, Count, saves Paris, be- 
comes King of France . . . .241 

Frankish chief 245 

Odoa'cer, King of Herulian Goths . 196 
deposes last Roman ruler in the 

V^'est 207 

Odys'seus (sus), adventures of . . . 75 
Oedipus the King (ed'i-pus), Aeschy- 
lus' 122 

Oeta (e'ta), Mount 95 



PAGE 

O'laf, King of Norway 249 

Olym'pia, scene of Olympic games . 120 
Olympic festivals, described . . . .120 
Olympus, Mount, home of Greek gods, 118 

O'mar, Arabian caliph 256 

mosque of 272 

Omdurman, battle of 551 

Ommi'ads, dynasty of 257 

overthrown 257, 258 

Ontario, government of 559 

"Open door," policy of 561 

Oracles, Greek belief in ... 119, 120 

Order of the Jesuits 366 

Orders in Council, issued 495 

Ordinajices, of St. Cloud 512 

Oriental peoples 21, 559 

Orino'co, Columbus at 327 

Orkney Islands, Norsemen in, . . . 251 
Orleans (or-la-ON'), Duke, regent of 

France 457 

Orleans, siege of 194, 387 

Or'muzd, Persian god 67 

Orsini (or-see'nee), Italian conspira- 
tor 533 

Osi'ris, Egyptian god 32 

Osmaii' Pash'a, Turkish general . . 548 

Ostracism, defined 89 

Ostrogothic kingdom, beginning of, 207 

Ostrogoths, Huns conquer .... 185 

occupy Roman territory .... 186 

in Pannonia 187 

Ostrolen'ka, battle of 514 

Oswy, King of Northumbria .... 247 

Othman', Arabian calipli 256 

Otto I., German emperor, restoration 

Holy Roman Empire 315 

Otto II 316 

Otto III. . . . -» 316 

Otto IV. . . .Mi . 317 

Ottoman EmpirMBunded . . 559, 560 
Oude (owd), pro\^ce of, recovered . 543 

Ou'denarde, IjaiMof 412 

O'veryssel, jo^Bfnion of Utrecht . £81 

Ov'id, Roman^roet 172 

Oxus River, cradle of Aryan race . . 16 

Pacific Ocean, Balboa discovers . . 328 

Pacification of Ghent 381 

Palat'inate, war of the .... 406, 433 

French army in 41G 

Pale, in Ireland 302 

Paler'mo, center of learning .... 318 

Pal'estine, subdued by Egyptians . . 30 

Babylonian campaign against . . 38 

Mohammedans in 256 

Christians seek to save 261 



596 



GENEEAL HISTOEY. 



PAGE 

Palestine, route to 269 

Panama, Isthmus of, Balboa at . . 328 

Panno'nia, Ostrogoths in 187 

Lombards in 210 

Panor'mus, battle of 144 

Papacy, supremacy over empire . . 236 

crusades benefit 273 

subject to French influence . . . 292 

Papal bull, burning of 354 

Papal elections 284, 285 

Papal power, rise of . 229-235, 283-294 

growth of 242 

supremacy 289 

decline of 292 

Papal States, Pepin grants .... 215 

Pope governs 232 

joined to French Empire .... 497 

revolt in 515 

Papy'rus, use of 34 

Par'cae, Greek divinities 119 

Par'iahs, Indian caste 58 

Paris, Northmen besiege . . . 210, 245 

Coligny in 388 

massacre in ...... . 389, 390 

splendor of 404 

treaty of, in Seven Years' war, 441, 455 

Parliament of 463 

mobs in 464, 465 

National Assembly at 467 

Commune in 471, 540 

houses searched 473 

guillotine 479-481 

captured 500 

Charles X. fl?es from 512 

revolt in 522 

treaty of, in Crimean war .... 532 

Germans besiege 540 

conference at, Niger question . . 551 
treaty of, in Spanish-American 

war 557 

Paris, Count of 521 

Paris, Trojan prince 75 

Parisian mob . 466-468, 472, 475-477, 483 

Parliament, supports Henry IV. . 308 

Henry VIII. rules independently of, 336 

and James I. ..'.., 416, 417 

and Charles 1 418 

Charles rules without 419 

Short 420 

Long 420 

rights of 423 

aristocratic character of ... . 432 

of Paris 463 

representation in 516 

Parliamentarians or Roundheads, 422, 423 
Parma, revolution in 515 



PAGE 
Parma, Austrian government over- 
thrown in 525 

Duke of 380 

Parnell, Charles Stewart, leader Home 

Rule party 546 

Pa'ros, Miltiades besieges .... 93 
Pan-, Catherine, wife of Heniy VIII., 363 

Par'thenon, built 102, 123 

Parthenope'an Republic, foimed . . 488 
Parthia, Roman campaign in . . . 162 
Paskevitch (pas-kye'vich), Russian 

general 515 

Patriarchs, authority of 230 

Patrician, Odoacer called .... 196 

Patrician rule, period of 132 

Patric'ians, in Rome 129 

inComitiaCuriata 131 

origin of 138 

Paul III., Pope 367 

Paulus, Lu'cius Aemi'lius, Ron:an gen- 
eral 150 

Pausa'nias, Spartan general .... 100 

Pavia(pa-ve'a), battle of 342 

Peace proposal of Nicholas II. . 562, 563 
Peasants, in feudal society .... 280 

revolt of 333 

revolt in Germany .... 354, 355 

in France 462 

revolt in La Vendue 473 

Pekin, capture of, threatened . . . 561 
Pelas'gians early inhabitants of 

Greece 73, 127 

Pelop'idas, Theban general .... 109 
Peloponne'ftian states, alliance against 

Sparta 106 

Peloponnesian war 104-107 

Peloponne'sus, division of Greece . 72 
Aetolians and Dorians seize . . 78, 85 
Spartan supremacy in . . . 83, 102 

joins Achaean League 116 

Pelii'sium, battle of . 31 

Peninsular wars 496, 497 

Pep'in of Heristal, ruler of Eastern 

Franks 213 

Pepin the Short, Prankish ruler . . 214 

first Carol in gian king 215 

donation to Pope 232 

Pepin, son of Louis the Pious . . . 237 

Pep'ins, family of 213 

Perian'der of Corinth 87 

Per'icle§, policy of 101 

Thirty Years' Peace 102 

Age of 102 

death of 105 

orator 122 

Periods, of history 18 



INDEX. 



597 



PAGE 

Periods, of Egyptian history .... 26 

Perioe'ci 84 

Perry, Commodore, treaty with Japan, 561 

Persep'olis, ruins of 69 

Per'seus, King of Macedonia . 117, 150 

Pei'sia, its people 21, 68 

conquers Egypt 27 

Egypt tributary to 31 

conquers Babylonia 38 

conquest of 42 

rules Hebrews 47 

under Cyrus the Great . . . . 64, 65 
power of, government, militai'y ex- 
peditions of Darius ..... 66 

Cambyses 66 

religion 67 

art, literature, agricultuie ... 69 

Ivars with Greece 90-98 

invasion of Greece 91, 92 

size of army 94, 95 

war with Athens 95 

at Thermopylae 95, 96 

battle of Salamis 97 

burns Athens 97 

defeat at Plataea 98 

gains Greek cities in Asia Minor . 109 

war with Sparta 109 

conquered by Alexander the Great, 112 

defeat at Issus 209 

Persian Empire, established in Asia 

Minor 90 

Lydia merged into 91 

downfall of 113 

Mohammedans in . 256 

Persiaji Gulf, Medes and Persians at . 64 
Per'tinax, Roman emp ror . . 178, note 

Peru, conquest of 329 

mines of 382 

independence of 558 

Peter the Great, Czar of Russia, boy- 

hO(5d of 443 

defeats Sophia 444 

loses port of Azov 444 

brings skilled foreigners to Russia, 444 

visits western Europe 444 

as laborer in Holland 445 

reforms of 445 

threatens Sweden 446 

death, cliaracter of 448 

Peter the Hermit, leads crusaders, 262, 263 

Petition of Right, passed 418 

Petitioners (Whigs), origin of . .• . 429 

Phalanx, described 112 

Pharaohs (fa'ro§), in Egypt . . . 27, 32 

Pharsa'lus, battle of 163 

Greeks repulsed at 553 

COLBY'S GEN. HIST.— 38 



PAGE 

Phld'Ias, Greek sculptor 103 

Philip I., King of France . . 309, note 
Philip II. (Augustus), leads thinl cru- 
sade 268 

returns to France 269 

war with England 302 

contest with Innocent III. , 303, o09, note 

war against Albigenses 310 

Philip III., King of France . . .«;09, note 
Philip IV. (the Fair) . . 311, 312, note 
quarrel with Pope Boniface VIII., 

292, 311 
first meeting States-General . . .311 

Philip V 309, note; 312, note 

Philip VI 312, note 

Philip I., King of Macedonia . . .111 

Philip III 149 

Philip II., King of Spain, marries 
Mary, Queen of England . . .370 
war against England, Spanish Ar- 
mada destroyed 372 

Netherlands 377, 378 

plans to place Mary Stuart on 

throne of England C88 

aids Leaguers 393 

Philip of Anjou 411, 412 

becomes King of Spain 414 

Philip, Landgrave of Hesss .... b"47 

Philip'pi, battle of 168 

Philip' pics, Demosthenes' speeches. 111 
Phil'ippine Islands, Magellan at . . 329 

rebellion in 555 

American victory in 556 

Spain gives up 557 

Philip'pus, Roman entperor . . 178, note 
Philis'tines, Hebrews conquer ... 45 

Philology, defined 13 

Philosophy, in Greece 122 

Phce'bus, Greek god .... 118, note 

Phoenicia, race 16, 21, 48 

foreign trade 35 

Assyrians demand tribute from . . 39 
conquered by Assyrians .... 40 

commerce 49 

prosperity of 49 

supremacy of Sidon 49 

Carthage founded 49, 50 

influence of 51, 12 

colonies 51 

racial character 51 

religion, literature 52 

influence on Greeks 74 

Physical geogiaphy, defined . . . 12, 13 

Picts, invasions of 192 

Piedmont (ped'm6nt), Charles V. cap- 
tures 346 



598 



GENERAL HISTORY. 



PAGE 

Piedmont, Francis I. acquires . . . 346 
Cromwell aids Protestants in . . 4'26 

Napoleon conquers 485 

Pilgrims, persecution of 261 

Pil'iiitz, Declaration of 472 

Pin'dar, Greek poet 121 

Pinta, Columbus' ship 327 

Pirates of Mediterranean, war with, 159 

Pisa (pe'za), Council of 293 

Pisis'tratus, tyrant of Athens . , 87, 88 

Pitt, English statesman 454 

Pius IX., Pope 525 

Pizar'ro, conquests uf 329 

Plague, in Rome 176 

Plantag'enet dynasty, in England, 299-307 

Platae'a, aids Athenians 92 

battle of 98 

Pla' to, Greek philosopher 122 

Plebe'ians, rights of 130 

share in government 131 

grievances of 133 

increase of power of 134 

withdravv to Sacred Mount . . .134 
secure political equality .... 135 

origin of 138 

Plgv'na, Russians capture . . . .548 

Plln'y, Roman author 172 

Pluto, Roman god 118, note 

Po River 146 

Poitiers (pwa-ti-a'), battle of . 214,306 

Poland, Jesuits in 367 

height of power of 436 

conquests of Teutonic Knights . . 436 

war with Sweikii 437 

feudal system of, Lithuania united 

to .... 449 

three partitions of .... 449, 450 

overthrow of 451 

Eastern states watch 472 

Russia intrigues over 474 

Austria loses possessions in . . . 495 

kingilom of, formed 503 

revolution in 514, 518 

absorbed in Russian dominiDUs . . 515 
Polignac (po-len-yak'), Prince . . .512 

Polish Succession, war of 460 

Political clubs, in French Revolution, 467 
Political geography, importance of, 12 

Political history, defined 11 

Political life, of Greeks 126 

Political map of Europe, restoration 

of 502 

Politiques (po-le-teek), party of, 

386, 387, 391, 393 

Poll tax, imposed 307 

Pollentia (po-len'shi-a), battle of . . 188 



PAGE 

Polygamy, in Persia 69 

Pomera'nia, Swedish possession . . 445 

ceded to Brandenburg 447 

Pompeii (pompa'yee), buried . . . 176 

excavations at 198 

Pom'pey, conquers Syria .... 116 

Roman general 158 

campaigns of 159 

head of army 160 

character of 161 

rivalry with Caesar 162 

Caesar defeats 163 

Poniatowski (po-ne-a-t6v'skee), favor- 
ite of Catherine IT 449 

Pon'tifex Max'imus, in Roman reli- 
gion 200 

Pon'tus, Sulla victorious in . . . .157 

Poor laws, improvement of ... . 542 

Pope, power of ........ 215 

Lombards threaten, Pepin's dona- 
tion 215 

Charlemagne protects 219 

superiority over emperor .... 225 

early 231 

rise of power of 231, 232 

See Papal 2)oiver. 

Pope, English poet 435 

Popish plot 429 

Popular Assembly, in Roman govein- 

ment 130 

Port Arthur, Russia secures . . . .562 
Porte. See Turkey. 

Portugal, Lusitanians in 152 

English in 496 

French invade 408 

in Congress of Vienna 502 

Portuguese, discover route around 

Cape of Good Hope 62 

discoveries of 326 

colonies of 330 

in Japan .• . 561 

Portuguese Empire, in India . . . 330 
Posei'don, Greek god . . . .118, note 

Posen, Prussia acquires 503 

Postal system, established in France, 395 

Pottery, Plioenician 51 

Praeto'rian guard 173, 259 

Pragmatic Sanction 439 

Prague, Bohemians in 398 

revolt at 528 

Prefectures, government of ... . 141 

Prehistoi-ic man 14 

Presbyterianism, in Scotland . 371, 419 

James I. opposes 416 

Pretender, James 452 

Young 454 



INDEX. 



599 



PAGE 

Pride's Purge 424, 425 

Prince Edward Island, government of, 559 
Printing, invented by Chinese ... 56 
Pro'bus, Roman emperor . . 178, note 

Protectorate, in England 426 

Protestant Reformation 323 

See Reformation. 
Protestantism, progress of ... . 357 
in Denmark and Sweden .... 365 
Teutonic countries of Europe favor, 368 

triumpli of 369 

French 384, 385 

recognition of 402 

Protestants, and Charles V. . . 347-349 

rights of, recognized 348 

revolution 350-363 

confession of faith 356 

persecution of 362 

and Catholics in Switzerland . . .364 

divisions of 366 

persecuted 370, 378 

aid Netherlands 382 

Coligny leads 385, 388 

freedom of worship granted . . . 386 
attack Catholic churches .... 386 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew . . 389 
form Evangelical Union .... 397 
revolt in Bohemia .... 397, 398 

leaders of 398 

Sweden favors 400 

retain church property 401 

in Piedmont 426 

during Charles II. 's reign .... 428 

revolt of peasantry 430 

See Hujuenots. 
Provence (pr6-v6Ns'), kingdom in 

France 241 

France actjuires 339 

Prussia, rise of 435-441 

early history 435, 436 

freed from Poland 437 

foundation of monarchy .... 437 
Frederick the Great .... 438-441 
war of Austrian Succession . 439, 440 

Silesia ceded to 440, 441 

Seven Years' war 440, 441 

leading state in northern Europe . 441 
Peter III. in sympathy with . . .441 
leading Protestant power .... 448 
Napoleon humiliates . . . 494, 495 
alliance with Russia, Sweden, and 

England 500 

Bliicher defeated 501 

in Congress of Vienna 502 

acquires Saxony 503 

Holy Alliance 505 



PAGE 
Prussia, league with Austria and 

Paissia 508 

rivalry with Austria . . . 524, 536, 537 

new policy of 524 

Schleswig-Holstein question . . . 536 

Bismarck's policy 537 

war with Austria 537, 538 

and Napoleon III 538 

Schleswig-Holstein ceded to . . . 538 
Ptah-Hotep, manuscript of .... 28 
Ptol'emies (tOl) of Egypt, rule He- 
brews 47 

Egypt under 115 

Ptolemy, brother of Cleopatra . . . 164 
Ptolemy Epiph'anes, coronation of . 25 
Ptolemy Lagi, King of Egypt . . .115 

Publicans, duties of 152 

Puerto Rico, Spanish colony . . . 555 

General Miles occupies 557 

Spain relinquishes 557 

Punic war, fiist 143, 144 

second 145-148 

third 150, 151 

Puritans, persecution of 373 

growing strength of 421 

Pyd'na, battle of 117, 150 

Pygmalion, Tyrian tyrant . . 50, note 
Pyni, John, popular leader .... 421 

Pyramids, use of 33 

Pyramids, battle of the 487 

Pyrenees, Visigoths driven to . . . 207 

Saracens cross 257 

Pyr'rhus, King of Epirus . . . 140, 141 
Pythag'oras, Greek philosopher . . 122 
Pyth'ian festivals 120 

Quadrilateral, the, Austrians retain, 534 
Quadruple Alliance, aids Turkey . . 520 
Quatre Bras (katr-bra'), battle of . . 501 

Quebec, government of 559 

Quin'tusFa'bius Maximus (Cunctator), 
Roman dictator 147 

Races, classification of 15-17 

Radicals, in France 519 

Raleigh, Sir Walter . . 374, 375, 417, 418 

Ramadan', holy month of 255 

Ramesse'uni, house of Ramses ... 31 
Ramillies (ra-me-ye'), battle of . .412 
Ram'se§ II., Egyptian king .... 30 

visits Phoenicia 49 

Rastadt (ras'tat), Peace of ... . 413 
Ravaillac (vii-va-yak'), murders Henry 

IV 395 

Raven'na, Caesar's headquarters at, 163 

Honorius at 188 



600 



GENERAL HISTORY. 



PAGE 

Ravenna, Narses at 210 

Lombards seize 215 

Raymond of Toulouse, leads crusades, 263 
Red Republicans, in Legislative As- 
sembly 471 

Red Sea, Jews pass through .... 45 
Reform Bill . . . 432, 516, 517, 542 

Reformation 323 

character of 350 

in Germany 350-359 

causes of 351 

in England 359-363 

in Switzerland 363 

arrest of 366-368 

Coimter 367 

in France 384 

Reforms, of Clisthenes 88 

Reg'ulus, Roman general 143 

fate of 144, 145 

Re-ho-bo'am, Hebrew king .... 46 
Reign of Terror ...... 478-482 

Religion, development of 17 

in Egypt 32 

of Babylonians and Assyrians, . 42, 43 

Phoenician 52 

Buddhism 55, 59-61 

in India 57-60 

Brahmanism 59 

of Medes and Persians 67 

of Greeks 118-120 

of Romans 199, 200 

of Arabs 252, 253 

of 11th century 261 

Calvinism 364, 365, 384 

in Netherlands 381 

in England, Catholic Emancipation 

Bill 517 

of Huguenots. See Huguenots. 
of Mohammedans. See Mohamme- 
danism. 
of Christians. See Catholics, Chris- 
tianity, Church, Crusades, Prot- 
estants, Reformation. 
Religious Peace, of Augsburg . . . 358 

Re'mns, legend of 129, 132 

Renaissance, beginning of ... . 318 

character of 323 

Republic, French . . . 475, 52;^, 540 

Republican Baptism 481 

Republican form of goverinuent, in 

Rome 132, 133 

Republican marriages 481 

Requesens, governor of Netherlands, 380 

Restitution, Edict of 399 

Restoration, in England . . . 427-430 
Retainer, defined 275 



PAGE 

Retreat of the Ten Thousand . . .108 

Revolt, of Ionian cities 91 

of peasants 306, 307 

Revolution, in England 416 

of 1688, in England 432 

French 456-470 

See French Revolution. 

American 462 

of 1830, in France 511-518 

of 1848, in France 521, 529 

Revolutionary Tribunal . . . 477, 482 

Rhea Silvia, priestess 129 

Rhine River, boundary Roman Em- 
pire ISl 

German tribes on 186, 193 

Prussia acquires provinces on . . 503 
Rhine, Confederation of the . . 494, 502 
Rhodes, Phoenician settlements in . 51 

Christians retain 272 

Turks capture 344 

Rhone valley, Buigundians in . . . 192 
Richard, Duke of York . . . 308, note 

Protector 333 

Richard, Earl of Cambridge . . 308, note 
Richard of Clare (Strongbow) . . .301 
Richard I., the Lion- Hearted (Coeur 
de Lion), King of England, leads 

third crusade 268, 302 

imprisoned 269 

war with Philip Augustus .... 302 

killed 310 

Richard II., revolt of peasants . . .306 

descent of 308, note 

Richard III. (Duke of Gloucester), 335 
Richelieu (resh-le-u'), Cardinal, policy 

of 400, 403 

death of 404 

Ridley, Bishop 370 

Rig Veda (va'da), India sacred book, 56 

Right, Declaration of 432 

Robert of France 309, note 

Robert of Normandy, leads crusaders, 268 

Henry I. defeats 297, 298 

Robert the Strong, Northmen kill . 245 

Roberts, English general 544 

Robespierre (ro-bes-pe-er'). Jacobin 

leader 467, 475, 480 

head of government 481 

executed 482 

Roderick, King of Visigoths . . .257 

Roderick of Connaught 3G2 

Roland, death of 223 

Rol'lo (Rolf), Norse chief 241 

secures Normandy 245 

Roman calendar 129 

Roman Church, influence of ... 204 



INDEX. 



601 



PAGE 

Roman Church, supremacy of . . , 231 

revolt against power 350 

Roman citizen, rights of 141 

Roman Empire, Gothic invasion of , 13 
separated into the Eastern and the 

Western 180 

fall of Western 196 

restoration of 315 

fall of Eastern 323 

Roman law, reduced to writing . . 208 
Roman or Tiberiau Republic, formed, 488 

Roman State 141 

Romanoffs, Russian dynasty . . . 443 

Romans, rule Hebrews 47 

origin of 129 

in Africa 147, 148 

fusion with barbarians 204 

Rome, conquers Macedonia .... 117 

society in, founded 129 

government of 129, 130 

patricians and plebeians . . 129, 130 

captures Alba Longa 129 

under the kings 130-132 

peiiod of patrician rule . . 132, 133 

new government in 133 

quarrels between patricians and 

plebeians 133 

Comitia Tributa, Decemvirs . . . 134 

political equality 135 

Licinian Laws 135, 155 

war with Aequians and Volscians . 136 

Gallie invasion 137 

wars with Etruscans 137 

Samnitewars 138-140 

war with Latins 138, 139 

conquers Greek cities in Italy, 140, 141 

war with Pyrrhus 140, 141 

ruling power in Roman State . . .141 

rights of citizens 141 

Latin franchise 142 

rivalry with Carthage 143 

First Punic war 143, 144 

Second Punic war .... 145-148 
acquires Cisalpine Gaul . . . .145 

Hannibal in Italy 146, 147 

Publius Cornelius Scipio . . 147-149 

Africa invaded 148 

Macedonia conquered . . . 149, 150 

Syria conquered 150 

Greece becomes Roman province . 150 

destruction of Corinth 150 

Third Punic war 150, 151 

extent of dominions .... 151, 171 

conquest in Spain 152 

government of provinces, publicans, 
public buildings 152 



PAGE 

Rome, increase of slavery . . 152, 153 

demoralization 153 

influence of Greek civilizati( n, 153, 154 

soi'ial conditions 154 

period of civil strife .... 154-169 

agrarian laws 155 

the Gracchi 155 

war with Jugurtha .... 155, 156 
defeat of Cimbri and Teutones . . 156 
Social war, unfair treatment of al- 
lies, war with Mithridates . . .157 

Marius and Sulla 157, 158 

war with Spain, revolt of gladiators, 158 

Pompey's campaigns 159 

war with pirates 159 

Catiline's conspiracy, party strife, 

Cicero 160 

Julius Caesar 160-166 

Gallic campaigns 161 

First Triumvirate 161 

Pompey and Crassus 162 

civil war 163 

Caesar's power 164 

Antonius and Octavius . 166, 168, 169 

Second Triumvirate 167 

Roman Empire 170-180 

government 170 

war with Germany 172 

Praetorian Guard . . . - . . . .173 
Augustine line of emperors . . . 173 

burned 174, 176 

Christian persecution, 174, 177, 178, 179 

plague 175 

Flavian Emperors 175 

eruption of Vesuvius . . , . - . 176 
emperors made by soldiers . . .178 

absolute monarchy 178 

separation into Eastern ami West- 
ern Empire 180 

Christianity predominant .... 180 
attempts at German conquest , . .184 

Goths invade . . , 185 

Theodosius saves empire . . . .187 

breaking )ip of empire 188 

sacked by Visigoths 188 

fall of lSO-197 

sacked by Vandals .... 195, 196 

fall of Western Empire 196 

life and manners 197-202 

military system 198 

religion 199, 20O 

education 202 

the church 206 

Eastern Roman Lmpire .... 208 

variety of tribes in 210 

Lombards in Italy 210 



602 



GENERAL HISTORY. 



PAGE 

Rome, under Charlemagne .... 225 

capital of Patriarchate 230 

Holy See removed from .... 292 

French in 343, 344, 534 

Rom'ulus, legend of 129, 132 

Romulus Augus'tulus, Roman em- 
peror 196 

Roncesvalles ((ron-thes-val'yes), bat- 
tle of 223 

Ros'amund, wife of Alboin .... 210 

Rosetta Stone 25 

Rossbach, battle of 441 

Roths'childs, wealth of 435 

Rouen (roo-5N'), burned 245 

Joan of Arc burned at 313 

Rouma'nia, addition to 532 

independence recognized .... 548 
Roundheads, principles of . . 422, 423 

Scots join 423 

Rousseau (roo-so'), French author . 461 
Roussillon (roo-se-yon'), France ac- 
quires 339 

Royalists, principles of .... 422 

defeated in Ireland 425 

Ru'bi€on River, boundary of Roman 

Empire 141 

Caesar crosses 163 

Rudolph I., German emperor . . . 318 

Rudolph II 397 

Runnymede, Magna Charta signed at, 304 

Rupert, Prince 423 

Ru'ric, Norse chief 250 

Russell, Lord 430 

Russia, Northmen settle in . . 244, 250 
beginning of Russian Empire . . 250 

alliance with Austria 440 

peace with Prussia 441 

early history 442 

and Sweden 442-451 

naval power in 444 

gains Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, 

and Finland 447 

seizes Wallachia and Moldavia . . 450 

plots to seize Turkey 472 

intrigues over Poland 474 

aids England against France . . . 493 

Napoleon in 494, 499 

Napoleon retreats from .... 499 
alliance with Prussia, Sweden, and 

England 500 

Holy Alliance 505 

league with Austria and Prussia . 508 

war with Turkey 511 

Warsaw acquired by 514 

Poland absorbed in ... . 514, 515 
aids Austria 528 



Russia, Crimean war .... 530-532 
interests in Afghanistan .... 544 
Russo-Turkish war .... 547, 548 

Mongols dominate 558 

gains foothold in Manchuria . . . 562 

secures Port Arthur, Talienwan . 562 

Russian Empire, beginning of . . . 250 

Russo-Turkish war ... . . 547, 548 

Pk,yswick (riz'wik), treaty of . . . . 411 

Sa'bines, division of Italians . . . 128 
Sacred College of Cardinals .... 285 

Sacred history 44 

Sacred Mount, plebeians withdraw to, 134 
Sado'wa (Koniggratz), battle of . . 538 

Sagun'tum, capturetl 146 

St; Albans, battle of 333 

St. Bartholomew, Massacre of . 387, 389 

St. Benedict, order of 234 

St. Bernard of Clairvaux, preaches 

second crusade 266 

St. Bon'iface, apostle to Germans . . 217 
St. Clair-sur-Epte, treaty of . . . . 245 
St. Cloud (saN-kloo'), Henry III. mur- 
dered at 393 

Ordinances of 512 

St. Dom'inic, monastic order of . . 292 
St. Francis, monastic order of . . . 292 
St. Germain (saN-zher-maN'), Edict of, 386 

peace of 388 

St. Hele'na, Napoleon captive at « . 502 
St. John, suffering of 234 

Knights of 272, 273 

St. Macarius, suffering of .... 234 

St. Paul, legend about 195 

St. Peter, legend about 195 

Prince of Apostles 231 

St. Petersburg, founded 446 

St. Sim' eon Styirte§ 234 

Sakka'rah, tomb of King Ti at . . . 28 
Sal'adin, governor of Egypt .... 268 

allows pilgrimages to Jerusalem . 269 

Sal'amis, battle of 97 

Saler'no, Gregory dies at 286 

Sal'ic Law 312 

Salisbury (sawlz'ber-I), Lord. . . . 546 
Sal'lust, Roman historian . . . .171 

Sal'vador, explored 328 

Sama'ria, capital kingdom of Israel . 46 

captin-ed by Sargon 47 

Samnite war, first 138 

second 139 

third 139,140 

Samnites, division of Italians . . .128 

wars with Rome 135 

form league 140 



INDEX. 



603 



PAGE 

Samnites, not admitted to citizenship, 157 
Sampson, Admiral, blockades Cuba . 556 

at Santiago 557 

Samson, Hebrew leader 45 

Samson, Church agent 363 

Samuel, Hebrew prophet 45 

San Juste (zhiist), monastery at . . 348 
San Sal'vador, Columbus discovers . 327 

San Stef ano, treaty of 548 

Sand, nmrders Kotzebue 509 

Sanskrit language 16, 56 

Santa Maria, Columbus' ship . . .327 

Santia'go, Schley at 557 

surrenders 557 

Santo Domingo (do-men'go), ceded 

to France 483 

Sappho (saf o), Greek poet .... 121 

Sar'acens, invade southern France . 214 

threaten kingdom of Franks . . . 219 

Charlemagne defeats . . . 222, 223 

conquers Spain 257 

in Spain, become independent . . 2.58 

Normans attack 319 

See Arabs, Moors. 

Sarag6s'sa, siege of 497, 498 

Sardanap'alus, Assyrian king ... 40 
Sardin'ia, Phoenician settleinents in . 51 

conquered by Caesar 163 

given to Savoy 414 

acquires Genoa 503 

revolution in 515 

effort to throw off Austrian yoke . 532 
war of Italian Independence . 533, 534 

Louis Napoleon aids 533 

northern Italian states annexed to, 534 

Lombardy ceded to 534 

acquires Sicily and Naples . . . 535 

Sard is, captured 65 

burned 91 

Sargon, Babylonian king ... 38, 39 

Sargon, Assyrian king 40 

captures Samaria 47 

Saron'ic Gulf 71 

Sasun district, Armenian massacre in, 552 
^ Satrapies, Persia divided into ... 66 

Satyrs, Greek divinities 119 

Saul, Hebrew king 45 

Savoy', Fraiicis I, acquires .... 345 
joins League of Augsburg . . . 410 

receives Sicily 414 

French overrun 474 

ceded to France 534 

Savoy, Duke of .... 409, 411, 426 

Saxon Emperors 314-316 

Saxons, Teutonic tribe 186 

invade Britain 193, 246 



PAGE 

Saxons, threaten kingdom of Franks . 218 
Charlemagne's long campaigns 

against 219-221 

converted to Christianity . . . .221 

Saxony, German duchy 240 

Wallenstein invades 400 

joins Swedisli king 400 

Frederick II. in 441 

Frederick William III. demands . 503 

revolt in 516 

Saxony, Duke of, elector . 319, 354, 356 
Scandinavia, home of Nortlnnen . . 244 
Northmen from, settle in Constan- 
tinople 250 

Scheldt (skeit) River, boundary of Lo- 

thair's duminions 238 

Schism, Great 293 

Schleswig-Holstein (shlaz'vig-hol'- 
stin), question of ... . 536, 537 

ceded to Prussia 538 

Schley (shla), at Santiago .... 557 
School of the Palace, established . . 227 

Scio, island of, captured 510 

Scip'io, Publius Cornelius, Roman 

general 147-149 

Scipio the Younger, Roman general, 151 

victory of 152 

Scotland, Northmen settle in . 244, 251 
revolt under William Wallace . . 305 

Robert Bruce, King of 305 

English attempt to recover . . . 306 

Calvinism in 365 

Presbyterianism in ... . 371, 419 

religious oppression in 420 

accepts new government .... 433 

union with England 434 

Scots, invade England .... 192, 298 
defeated at Flodden Field . . .360 

join Roundheads 423 

See Sco'land. 
Sculpture, Assyrian and Babyloniaii . 42 

See Art. 
Scyth'ians, Persian expedition against, 66 
Sea Nymphs, Greek divinities . . .119 
Sel^astopol (sa-vas-to'p61), siege of, 531, 532 
Sedan (se-dON'), battle of .... 539 
Seine River, Northmen on .... 245 
Seja'nus, friend of Tiberius . . .174 
SeleiTcidae, rulers of Syria .... 116 
Seleu'eus, founds kingdom of Syria . 116 
Seljuks (sel-yooks'), occupy Holy 

Land 260 

persecute pilgrims 261 

slaughter crusaders 264 

Semitic race, divisions of .... 16 
Sempach (sfinVpaK), battle of . . . 319 



604 



GENERAL HISTOEY. 



PAGE 

Senate, in Spartan government . . . 79 

in Athens 88 

in Roman government 130 

Sen'eca, Roman author 174 

Senlac, battle of 235 

Sennaeh'erib, Assyrian king .... 40 

Senti'num, battle of 140 

September Massacres 473 

Septim'ius Seve'rus, Roman em- 
peror 178, note 

Serfs, in feudal system 278 

Serto'rius, Ronian general .... 158 
Servia, aids Bosnia and Herzegovina . 547 
independence of, recugnized . . . 548 
Ser'vius Tul'lius, Roman king . . .131 
Sesos'tris, Ramses II. called .... 30 

Settlement, Act of 434 

Seven Years' war, causes of ... 440 
colonial affairs in America . . . 454 

victory at Quebec 455 

Seve'rus, Alexander, Roman em- 
peror 178, note 

Sev'ille, trade with colonies . . . .331 
Seymour, English admiral .... 549 
Seymour, Jane, wife of Heniy VIII. . 369 
Shakespeare, English poet .... 375 
Shalmane'§er II., King of Assyria, 39, 64 
Sharp, Granville, English reformer . 542 

Shem, son of Noah 16 

Shepherd Kings 26, 28 

Shiahs (she'az) (Slii'ites), division of 

Mohammedans 256 

Shi'nar, region in Babylonia ... 38 
Ship money, collection of .... 419 

prohibited 421 

Ship'ka Pass, Russians seize . . . 548 

Shoguns, power of 560 ' 

overthrown in Japan 561 

Short Parliament 420 

Shrewsbury, battle of 308 

Siam, Buddhism in 61 

Siberia, western, Russia conquers . 443 | 
Sichae'us, Pygmalion murders . 60, note 

Sicilian expedition 106 i 

Sicilies, Two, kingdom of .... 320 
Sicily, Phoenician colonies in . . . 51 

Greek colonists in 127 j 

Greeks in, attacked 141 j 

Romans conquer 143 

Roman province in 144 

conquered by Caesar 163 

Vandal colonies in 192 

Northmen settle in ... . 244, 319 

given to Savoy 414 

government of 534 

joins Sardinia 535 



I PAGE 

Sicyon (sish'i-on), rulers of .... 87 
Sidney, Algernon, death of ... . 430 
Sidney, Sir Philip, English write)- . . 375 

in Netherlands 382 

Si'don, chief Phoenician city . . 48, 49 
Sierra Leone, Portuguese at ... . 326 
Sieyes (se-yas'), Abb^, French politi- 
cian 488 

Sig'ismund, German emperor . . . 435 
Silesia (sMe'shi-a),FrederickII. seizes, 439 

ceded to Prussia 440, 441 

Silk, manufacture of 209 

Simon of Montfort, Earl of Leicester, 805 
Simon of Montfort, French count . . 311 

Simony, defined 284 

Slavery, in Sparta 84 

among Greeks 126 

in Rome 152, 153 

in the Indies 331 

in Spanish colonies 331 

in Africa 332 

abolished in France 466 

abolished in British colonies . . .542 

Slavs, migrations of 181 

home of 186 

Charlemagne subdues 223 

Henry I. conquers 315 

Smalkaldic League . . . 347, 357, 368 
Smalkaldic wars .... 347, 348, 358 
Smith, Sir Sidney, English commander, 487 

Smyr'na, Bay of 78 

Social conditions, in Rome .... 154 

Social war 157 

Socialists, aims of 521 

Society, Egyptian 31 

Greek • 74 

Soc'rate§, Greek philosopher . 108, 122 
Soissons (swas-soN'), battle of . . . 205 

story of vase of 212 

Solferi'no (-e'-), battle of 534 

Sol'iman I., Sultan of Ottoman Turks, 344 

Solomon, Hebrew king 45, 46 

So'lon, Greek sage 65 

Constitution of 86 

Song of Roland 223 

Soothsayers (liaruspices) 200 

Sophia, wife of elector of Hanover . 434 

Sopliia, half-sister to Peter the Great, 443 

Soph'o€le§, Greek dramatist . 103, 121 

Soudan (soo-dan'), annexed to Egypt, 30 

Anglo-Egyptian expedition in . . 551 

South African Republic (Transvaal), 550 

South America, Columbus in ... 327 

revolt of Spanish colonies in . . . 518 

independence of Spanish colonies in, 558 

South Sea Bubble 452 



INDEX. 



605 



PAGE 

Spain, civilization of Moors in ... 18 
Carthaginian empire in .... 146 
Cartliaginians driven from . . . 148 

Roman conquests in 152 

war in 158 

Pompey in command of . . . .161 
Caesar's victory in .... 163, 164 
Visigothic kingdom in . . . 190, 193 
Saracens (Moors) in . 214, 222, 257, 258 

Northmen invade 244 

Mohammedans in 257 

conquests in New World .... 329 

under Moors 339 

Ferdinand and Isaliella 340 

Inquisition 340 

revolt of Ghent 346 

decline of 373 

and the Netherlands .... 377-379 
States-General renounces the au- 
thority of 381 

war with France 406 

invasion of Spanish Netherlands . 407 

alliance with Holland 408 

relinquishes Franche-Comte and 

possessions in Flanders .... 408 
joins League of Augsburg .... 410 
loses Spanish Netherlands .... 414 

treaty of Utrecht 414 

war of Spanish Succession .... 434 

hostility with England 454 

cedes Santo Domingo to France. . 483 
alliance with France . . .^ . . . 496 
Napoleon seizes crown of ... . 496 
Joseph Bonaparte, king of . . . 496 

Peninsular wars 496, 497 

in Congress of Verona 502 

colonies in America 507 

Constitution of 1812 507 

military revolt 507 

liberal movement in, crushed . . 508 
loses colonies in South America, 518, 558 
revolt in Cuba and Philippines . . 555 
war with the United States . . .555 
Spanish- American war . . . 555-557 
Spanish Armada, destroyed .... 372 

Spanish Fury 380 

Spanish Netherlands, revolt in, 346, 347 

invasion of 407 

Spain loses 414 

Spanish Succession, war of . . 406, 434 
Sparta, ruling city in the Pelopon- 
nesus 78, 83, 102 

Constitution of 79 

rise of 79 

system of Lycui-gus 79, 83 

education in 80, 81 



PAGE 

Sparta, military organization, social 

life 81 

effect of training 82 

conquers Laconia, war with Mes- 

senians 83 

Helots and Periocci 83 

refuses to aid Ionian cities ... 91 
revolt of Messenians and Helots . 101 

Thirty Years' Peace 102 

Peloponnesian war .... 104-107 

aids Corinth 105 

champion of aristocratic cities . . 105 

tx'uce of Nicias 105 

victory of Man tinea 106 

aids Syracuse 107 

supremacy of 108 

alliance with Persia 109 

aristocratic tendencies, war with 

Persia 109 

war with Thebes 110 

Spar'tacu , heads Gladiatorial war . 158 
Spenser, Edmund, English poet . . 375 

Sphaete'r a, battle of 105 

Sphinx, dtscribed 33 

Spires, Diet of 356 

Standard, Battle of the 298 

Star Chamber, Court of 337 

States-General, in France . . . .311 

conflict in 463, 464 

of Union of Utrecht 381 

of Holland -407 

Statute of Appeals, passed . . . .361 
Stephen, King of England, 295, note ; 298 

Stephen, Pope 215 

Stephen of Cloyes, preaches crusade . 271 

Stil'icho, Roman general 188 

Stock'holm, seized 365 

Stone Age 14, 15 

Strafford, English general . . 420, 421 
Straits of Magellan, discovered . . 329 
Strassburg (stras'boorG), Louis XIV. 

seizes 409 

France retains 411 

Strelitz (stra'lits), revolt of . . . .445 
Stuart family .... 415, 416, 427, 433 

Styx, mythical river 125 

Suabia (swa'bl-a), German duchy . . 240 

Subinfeudation, defined 276 

Su'dras, Indian caste 58 

Snevi (swe'vi), invade Roman domin- 
ions 188 

settle in Spain 190 

Suffrage, universal, demanded in 

France 519, 520 

Louis Philippe favors 526 

extension in England 542 



606 



GENEKAL HISTORY. 



PAGE 

Sul'la, Lucius Cornelius, Roman gen- 
eral 156 

chief of aristocratic faction . . .157 

dictator of Rome 158 

Sully (sii-le'), French minister . . . 395 
Sumer, region in Babylonia .... 38 
Sun'nites, division of Mohammeilans, 256 
Susa, Alexander the Great at . . . 114 

Suzerain, power of 275 

Swam'nierdani, French cruelty in . . 408 

Sweden, Northmen in 244 

Protestantism in 365, 400 

Thirty Years' war 397 

acquisitions of 401 

represented in German Diet . . . 402 
joins League of Augsburg .... 410 
alliance with England and Holland, 428 

war with Poland 437 

power at close of 17th century . . 445 

under Charles XII 446 

aids England against France . . . 493 

ally of France 497 

in Congress of Vienna 502 

Norway united to 503 

Swedes, driven from Brandenburg . 437 
Swegen (Sweyn), King of Denmark, 
becomes King of England . . .249 

Swift, English author 435 

Swiss Confederation, recognized . . 503 
Swiss <juards, massacre of . . 472, 475 

Swiss Reformation 356 

Swiss (Helvetic) Republic, formed . 488 

Switzerland, lake dwellings in . . . 15 

Burgundian kingdom in . . 192, 193 

Vandal kingdom in 193 

war of independence, victoiies of 
Morgarten, Sempach, Nafels . . 319 

and Francis 1 343 

Charles V. flees to 348 

Protestantism in 356 

Reformation in 363 

independence recognized . . . .401 

number of cantons increased . . 503 

Syene (si-ee'nee), Egyptian city . . 23 

Sylvester, Pope 232 

Sympo'sium, at Greek banquets . . 125 

Synod of Whitby 247 

Syracuse, battle of 106 

king of, attacks Mamertines . . .143 

Syria, its people 16 

Babylonian campaign against . . 38 

Shalmanesf r conquers 39 

conquered by Assyrians .... 40 

relinquished by Egypt 41 

Helirew alliance with 46 

rules Hebrews 47 



PAGE 

Syria, Alexander the Great in . . . 112 

becomes Roman province . . . .116 

kingdom of, formed 116 

Roman contiuest of 150 

Crassns, commander of 161 

Mohammedans in . . . 256, 266, 272 

Seljuks overrun 260 

Alexius desirous to regain .... 264 

Louis IX. in 272 

French expedition in 487 

Mehemet Ali conquers 520 

Tac'itus, Roman historian . . . .172 
Tacitus, Roman Emperor . . 178, note 
Ta'gus River, Armada sails from . . 372 

English fleet on 373 

Taine, French historian . 465, note ; 481 
Taiping (ti'ping) Reliellion, in China, 560 
Talienwan, Russia secures .... 562 

Tam'erlane, empire of 559 

Tan'agra, battle of 101 

Tan'aquil, wife of Tarquinius Priscus, 131 
Tan'cred, leads crusaders .... 263 
Taoism, Chinese form of religion . . 55 

Taren'tum, Pyrrhus aids 140 

Tarpe'ian Rock, in Capitoline Hill . 138 
Tarquin'ius Pris'cus, Roman king . . 131 
Tarquinius Superbus, Roman king, 131,132 
Tarshish, Phoenician city .... 51 
Tartars, classification of 17 

in Central Asia 22 

Tassilo, Duke of Bavarians .... 222 
Taxation, method of, in England . . 302 

excessive, during John's reign . . 303 

in France 462, 463, 466 

Ta-yg'e-tus, Mount, Spartans exposed 

on 80 

Tel-el-Kebir(-ke-ber'), battle of . .549 
Ten Thousand, retreat of the . . .108 
Test Act, provisions of 429 

James I. violates 431 

Testry, battle of 213 

Tetzel (tet'sel), Dominican monk . . 352 

Luther opposes 353 

Teutberga, wife of Lothair II. . . . 233 
Teutoberg (toi'to-berG) Forest, bat- 
tle in 184 

Teu'to-ne§, Romans defeat . . . .156 
Teutonic barbarians, invasions of . 18 
Teutonic Knights, Order of . . . .267 

conquer Prussia 436 

Teutonic migrations .... 181-189 
Tewflk Pasha (tu'fik pa-sha'). Viceroy 

of Egypt 549 

Tewkesbury, battle of 334 

Tha'le§, Greek philosopher .... 122 



INDEX. 



607 



PAGE 

Thapsiis, battle of 164 

Theater, Greek, described . . 123, 124 
Thebes, Egyptian capital at .... 28 

temples at 31 

Thebes, Cadmus in 74 

war with Sparta 109, 110 

supremacy of 110 

alliance with Athens Ill 

Themis'toele§, and Athenian navy . . 94 

defeats Persians 97 

ostracized 99 

Thedd'oric, King of Odtroguths . 207, 208 
Theodo'sius, Roman emperor . 185, 187 

Theog'ony, Hesiod's 121 

Thermidor, Revolution of .... 482 
ThermOp'ylae, defense of ... . 95, 96 

The'seus, Greek hero 74, 85 

Thespians, Spartan allies 95 

Thes'saly, division of Greece . , 71, 73 

settlement of 77 

Persians in 98 

Thibet (ti-b6t'), Buddhists in . . . 61 

Thiers (te-ar'), French statesman . . 512 

repi'esentative of constitutionalists, 519 

demands extension of suffrage . . 521 

Tliird Estate, in States General . . 463 

Thirty Cities, League of 129 

" Thirty Tyrants," government of . . 107 

downfall of 108 

period of 178, note 

Thirty Yeais' peace 102 

Thirty Years' war, causes .... 396 

Evangelical Union 397 

Bohemian period, Tilly and Wallen- 

stein 397, 398 

second period 399 

Edict of Restitution 399 

Gustavus Adolphus .... 399, 445 

sack of Magdebnrg 399 

third stage, Wallenstein murdered, 400 

battle of LUtzen 400 

treaty of Westphalia 401 

Frederick William, elector of Bran- 
denburg .... 437 

Thorn (t6rn), treaty of 436 

Thoth'mes, Egyptian ruler .... 30 

Thrace, Philip conquers Ill 

Visigoths in 187 

Thracians, Persian expedition ayainst, 66 
Thucyd'ides, Greek historian . . .122 

Ti, Egyptian king 28 

Tiber River, boundary of Latium . . 128 
Tibe'rias, Christians routed at . . . 268 
Tiberius, Roman emperor . . . .173 
Tiberius Gracchus, Roman tribune, 155 
Tici'no (Tlcinus) River 533 



PAQE 
Ticinus (Ticino) River, battle of . . 146 
Tig'lath-Pile'ser I., conquests of . . 39 

Tiglath-Pileser II 40 

Tigris River, valley of . . . 22, 36, 37 
Tilly, Catholic general . . . 398-400 

Til'sit, treaty of 494 

Titus, Roman emperor 175 

Todleben, engineer 531 

Toga, Roman dress 200 

Togrul Beg, conquers caliphs . . . 259 
Tonquin (t5n-ken'), French in . . . 562 

Tories, origin of party 429 

in power 434 

Torquema'da (tor-ka-ma'Da), Spanish 

inquisitor 367 

Torres Vedras (tOr'ras va'dras), forti- 
fied 498 

Toscanel'li, Italian astronomer . . .327 
Toulon (too-loN'), captured .... 478 

executions at 481 

Touraine (too-ran'), England claims, 302 

France acquires 303 

Tournament, described 282 

Tours (toor), battle of . . 214, 257, 559 
Tower, murder of princes in . . . . 335 

Towton, battle of 333 

Trade, Eastern, developed .... 320 
Portuguese secure Indian .... 330 

Flemish, destroyed 379 

free, in England 542 

with China 562 

Trafalgar, battle of 493 

Trajan, Roman emperor 177 

Transvaal (-val). Republic of . . , 550 
Trasume'nus, Lake, battle of . . . 147 
Treaties. See respective names. 

Tre'bia River, battle on 146 

Trent, Council of 347, 367 

Treves (trevz), Archbishop of . . . 319 
Tribes, Assembly of, instituted . . .134 

I'ribo'man, Roman jurist 208 

Trib'unate, in French government. . 489 

Tnl)'unes, election of 134 

Trifa'num, battle of 139 

Trip'oli, Mohammedans in ... . 256 

Tritons, Greek divinities 119 

Triumphal Gate, processions through, 199 

Trium'virate, First 161 

Second 167 

Trojan war, Odysseus in 75 

Troppau (trOp'pow) , Congress of, 508, 517 

Troy, siege of 75 

Troyes (trwa), treaty of . . . 309,313 

Truce of God 316 

Tsin dynasty, in China 54 

Tudor monarchs, in England . . .336 



608 



GENERAL HISTOEY. 



PAGE 

Tudor monarclis, last of 369 

Tuileries (twe'le-riz), Palace of . . . 472 
Tnl'lus Hostil'ius, Roman king , , . 130 

Tunis, besieged 272 

expedition against 345 

Tura'nian race, civilization of . . . 17 

divisions of 17, 37 

Turenne', French general 406 

Turgot (tiir-go'), French minister , . 462 

Tu'rin, battle of 412 

Turkey, war with Greeks , . . 509-511 

war with Prussia 511 

war with Egypt 520 

Quadruple Alliance 520 

European possessions of ... . 529 

weakness of 529 

Crimean war 530-532 

Russo-Turkish war 547 

Armenian massacres .... 552, 553 

Graeco-Turkish war 553 

Cretan revolt 553 

position after Graeco-Turkish war, 554 
Turkish Empire, decay of .... 549 

Turks, classification 17 

capture Constantinople . . . 259, 323 
threaten Eastern Eminre .... 262 

defeated at Nicaea 264 

defeated at Antioch 265 

defeat second crusade . . . 267, 268 

French alliance with 344 

Charles V. wages war against . . 357 

Tus'cany, Duke of 528 

Twelve Tables 134 

Tyler, Wat, heads peasant insurrec- 
tion 307 

Tyrants, in Greek cities . . . . 87, 88 

Thirty 107, 108 

Tyre, Hebrew alliance with , . .46, 49 

Phoenician city , . 48 

power of 49 

Sichaeus, ruler of 50, note 

Tyrian purple 51, 52 

Tyr-tae'us, Greek poet .... 83, 121 

Uitlanders, trouble with 550 

Ulm (oolm), battle of ...... 493 

Ulster County, Scotch and English 

colonies in 417 

Ulys'ses, adventures of 75 

Umbrians, division of Italians . . . 128 

join Samnites 140 

Union of Utrecht 381 

United States, Monroe Doctrine . . 518 

Spanish-American war . . . 555-557 
University of Jena 509 



PAGE 
Upanishads (oo-pa-ni-shadz'), doc- 
trines of 59 

Ur, birthplace of Abiaham .... 44 

Ur'ban II., Pope 262 

Ur-Bayas, Babylonian king .... 38 

Urukh, Babylonian city 38 

User'tesen I., Egyptian ruler ... 28 

U'shas, Indian god 57 

U'tre€ht, Union of 381 

treaty of 413, 434 

Vadimo'nian Lake, battle of . . . 139 

Vais'yas, Indian caste 58 

Va'lens, Roman emperor 185 

Valmy (val-me'), battle of .... 474 
Valois (val-wa'). House of .... 312 
Vandalism, origin of term . . . .192 
Vandal kingdom, founding of . . . 191 
Vandalos (Andalusia), Vandals oc- 
cupy 190 

Vandals, German tribe 187 

invasions of . 188 

in Spain 190 

a destructive people 191 

kingdom overthrown 192 

kingdom in Africa 193 

sack Rome 195, 196 

Belisarius conquers 209 

Van Tr5mp, Dutch commander . . 426 
Varan'gians, bodyguard of Eastern 

emperors 250 

Varennes (va-r6nz'), Louis XVI. cap- 
tured at 468 

Va'runa, Indian god 57 

Va'rus, Roman general 172 

invades Germany 184 

Vas'co da Ga'ma, Portuguese explorer, 330 
Vassals, defined ........ 275 

and lords, relations between . 276, 277 

Vassy (va'-), massacre of 387 

Vauban (vo-b6N'), French engineer . 407 
Vayu (vah'yoo), Indian god .... 57 
Vedas (va'-) , sacred writings .... 56 
Veil (vay'ee), wars with Rome . . . 135 

captured 137 

Venetia, Austria relinquishes . . . 494 
Venetians, transport crusaders . . 269 
Venezuela, independence of ... . 558 
Venice, acquires part of Eastern Em- 
pire 270 

treaty of 288 

importance of 320 

Austria acquires 486 

becomes a republic 525 

Austria retains 534 



INDEX. 



609 



PAGE 

Venice, Victor Emmanuel acquires . 538 
Venus, Roman goddess . 119, note ; 199 
Verde, Cape, Portuguese at ... . 326 

Ver'den, massacre at 221 

Verdun (vgr-duN'), treaty of . 237, 238 

surrender of 473 

Vergil, Roman poet 50, 171 

Vero'na, Congress of . . 507, 510, 517 
Versailles (ver-salz'), mob at . 466, 467 

Vervins, treaty of 394 

Vespa'sian, Roman emperor . . . 175 
Vesta, Roman goddess . . 119, note; 199 
Vestals, Roman priestesses .... 200 

Vesuvius, battle near 139 

eruption of 176 

Via Sacra, procession through . . .199 
Victor Emmanuel, King of Lombardy, 215 
Victor Emmanuel II., King of Sar- 
dinia 527, 532 

Victor II., Pope 285 

Victoria, Queen of England, Empress 

of India 543 

Vienna, Soliman threatens .... 344 

University of 363 

Napoleon threatens 486 

Congress of . . 501, 502, 508, 513, 514 

uprising in 524 

Vikings, Northmen called . . . .245 

Villafran'ea, truce at 534 

Villains, in feudal system .... 278 
Vinland, Norsemen settle in ... 251 

discovery of 328 

Virginia, explored 375 

Viri'athns, Lusitanian chief .... 152 
Visigothic kingdom, Mo(*rs destroy . 339 
Visigoths, defeat Romans . . . .185 

settle in Moesia 185 

occupy Roman territory .... 186 

iu Thrace 187 

sack Rome 188 

found kingdom in Spain .... 190 

possessions of 191 

aid Romans 194 

Clevis conquers 207 

Vittoria (ve-to're-a), battle of . . . 500 
Volscians, wars with Rome . . 135, 136 
Voltaire (vol-t^r'), French autlior . 461 
Von Moltke (fon molt'keh), German 

general 538 

Vosges (vozh), Cavour meets Napo- 
leon III. at 533 

Vulcan, Roman god 118, note 

Wagram (va'gram), battle of . . . 497 

Wakefield, battle of 333 

Wales, conquered 305 



PAGE 

Wall, Great, of China 54 

Wallace, William, leader of Scots . 305 
Walla'€hia, seized by Russia . . . 450 
Wallenstein (vOl'en-stin), Catholic 

leader 398 

retires 399 

restored 400 

Walpole, Sir Robert, ministry of . . 453 

fall of 454 

Walter the Penniless, leads crusa- 
ders 263 

War, of the Roses .... 306, 333-335 

of Investitures 316 

of Three Henrys 392 

of Spanish Succession . . . 406, 434 

of the Palatinate 406, 433 

of Austrian Succession . . . 439, 440 

of Polish Succession 460 

of Liberation 499 

of Greek Independence . . 509, 510 
of Italian Independence . . 533, 534 
See also special names of wars. 
Warsaw, murder of Russians at . . 450 

Duchy of, formed 495 

Alexander I. claims 502 

Russia acquires 503 

government of 514 

Russians capture 515 

Wartburg (vart'boorG), Lutlier at . . 354 
Warwick (wSr'ik), Earl of . . . . 3£3 

killed 334 

Wasps, The, Aristophanes' .... 122 

Waterloo', battle of 501 

Wealth, in Rome 152 

Wedmore, treaty of 248 

Weights, knowledge of, in Babylon . 42 
Wei-Hai-Wei, Great Britain secures . 562 
Weissenburg (vi-sen-boorG), battle 

of 539 

Welf (Guelph), House of 317 

Wellesley (welz'li) , Sir Arthur. See Duke 
of Wellington. 

Wellesley, Marquis of 542 

Wellington, Duke of, in Portugal . . 496 

victories of 498 

at Vittoria 500 

at Quatre Bras 501 

policy of 502 

Welsh, revolt of 308 

claim discovery of North America . 328 
Wer'den, ceded to Hanover . . . .447 

Wessex, Egbert, king of 247 

West India Company, colonies of . . 383 

Western Roman Empire 180 

fallof 196,203 

West'minster, William I. crowned at, 295 



610 



GENEKAL HISTOKY. 



PAGE 

Westpha'lia, treaty of . 350, 382, 396, 401 

kingdom of 495 

Whigs, origin of 429 

in power 434, 452 

Whit'by, Synod of 247 

Wid'uldnd, Saxon leader . , . 220, 221 
Wilberforce, English leformer . . . 542 
William I., the Conqueror, King of 

England 295, 296 

Doomsday Book 296 

government of 297 

William II., Rufus . . . 295, note ; 297 
William III., aids Sweden . . , .644 
William I., King of Holland . . .513 
William I., King of Prussia . . 239, 536 
proclaimed Emperor of Germany . 540 
William of Orange (the Silent) . . .379 
governor-general of Union of Utrecht, 

381 

death of 381 

character of 382 

William, Prince of Orange, Dutch 

leader 408 

King of England 410 

claims to English throne .... 432 
See William and Mary. 
William and Mary, reign of . . 432, 433 

Windsor, treaty of 302 

Wing dynasty, in China 559 

Wittenberg, Luther at . . 342, 352, 354 
Wolfe, General, victorious at Quebec, 454 
Wolseley (woolz'li). Sir Garnet. . .549 
Wolsey, Cardinal, counselor of Henry 

VIII 360 

fall of 361 

Women, in Sparta 82, 83 

Worcester (woos'ter), battle of . . . 425 

Workshops, National 522 

Works and Days, Hesiod's . . . .121 
Worms (vorms), Burgundians in . . 192 

Concordat of 287, 289 

Diet of 354 



PAGE 

Wu Wang, Chinese ruler 54 

Wurniser, Austrian general .... 485 

Wiirtemberg, Duchy of 402 

Wyclif, John, reforms of 293 

Xavier (zavl-cr), St. Francis . . .331 
Introduces Christianity into Japan, 561 

Xenophon, Greek historian , 68, 108, 122 

Xerxes (zerks'eez), King of Persia . 94 
at battle of Sal amis 97 

Xisu'thros, story of 38 

Yangtze Kiang (yang'tse-ke-ang'), val- 
ley of 22 

York, Duke of 429 

York, House of 308 

Yorkists, badge of 334 

Young Pretender, defeated atCulloden, 454 

Zaandam', Peter the Great at . . . 445 

Za'ma, battle of 148 

Za'ra, captured 269 

Zarathush'tra, Bactrian priest . . 67 

Zealand, takes up arms 379 

joins Union of Utrecht 381 

Zend language 68 

Ze'no, Greek philosopher .... 122 

Zeno, Roman emperor 207 

Zeus (zus), Greek god 118 

his oracle , . 119 

Olympic festivals for 120 

altar to 125 

Zidonians, life of 49 

Zorndorf (tsorn'dort), battle of . . 49 

Zoroas'ter, doctrines of 67 

Zoroastrianism 67 

Zurich (tsii'riK), becomes Protestant, 364 

treaty of 534 

Zutphen (zut'fen), siege of . . . .382 

Zwingli (tsftlng'lee), leader of Swiss 
Reformation. . . . . . 356,363 

killed 364 



A School History 

of the United States 

By John Bach McMaster 

Professor of American History in the University of 
Pennsylvania. 

Linen, i2mo, 507 pages. With maps and illustrations . . $i.00 

This new history of our country is marked by many 
original and superior features which will commend it alike 
to teachers, students, and general readers. The narra- 
tive is a word-picture of the great events and scenes of 
American history, told in such a way as to awaken enthu- 
siasm in the study and make an indelible impression on 
the mind. From the beginning the attention of the 
student is directed to causes and results, and he is thus 
encouraged to follow the best methods of studying history 
as a connected growth of ideas and institutions, and not a 
bare compendium of facts and dates. Special prominence 
is given to the social, industrial, and economic develop- 
ment of the country, to the domestic life and institutions 
of the people, and to such topics as the growth of inven- 
tions, the highways of travel and commerce, and the pro- 
gress of the people in art, science, and literature. The 
numerous maps give vivid impressions of the early 
voyages, explorations, and settlements, of the chief mili- 
tary campaigns, of the territorial growth of the country, 
and of its population at different periods, while the 
pictures on almost every page illustrate different phases in 
the civil and domestic life of the people. 



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Pupils' Outline Studies 

IN THE 

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

BY 

FRANCIS H.WHITE, A.M. 
Paper, Square Octavo, 128 pages - - Price, 30 cents 



This is a book of Outline Studies, Maps and Blanks, 
intended for use in connection with the study of United 
States History. It contains an original and systematic 
combination of devices consisting of outline maps, graphic 
charts, and blanks for historical tables and summaries, for 
the reproduction of pictures, for biographical sketches, for 
studies in civil government, etc. It also contains valuable 
suggestions to teachers and pupils, and carefully selected 
lists of historical books and authorities for collateral reading 
and reference. 

Its use will encourage the pupil to observe closely, to 
select the leading and salient facts of history, to classify his 
knowledge, to investigate for himself, and to carry his inves- 
tigations up to recognized authorities and even to original 
sources. It also furnishes opportunity and material for the 
best exercises and training in English Composition. 

The book is conveniently arranged for either class or 
individual instruction and may be used in connection with 
any text-book on United States History. 



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Seeley's History of Education 

By Dr. LEVI SEELEY 

Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J. 

Cloth, i2mo, 350 pages. Price, $1.25 



Nearly 400,000 active teachers in the United States 
are required to pass an examination in the History of 
Education. Normal schools, and colleges with peda- 
gogical departments lay particular stress upon this sub- 
ject and the Superintendents of Education in most states, 
counties, and cities^ now expect their teachers to possess a 
knowledge of it. 

This book is not based on theory, but is the practical 
outgrowth of Dr. Seeley's own class-work after years of 
trial. It is therefore a working book, plain, comprehen- 
sive, accurate, and sufficient in itself to furnish all the 
material on the subject required by any examining board, 
or that may be demanded in a normal or college course. 

It arranges the material in such a manner as to appeal 
to the student and assist him to grasp and remember 
the subject. 

It gives a concise summary of each system discussed, 
pointing out the most important lessons. 

It lays stress upon the development of education, 
showing the steps of progress from period to period. 

It begins the study of each educational system or 
period with an examination of the environment of the 
people, their history, geography, home conditions, etc. 

It gives a biographical sketch of the leading edu- 
cators, and their systems of pedagogy, including those of 
Horace Mann and Herbart. 

It treats of the systems of education of Germany, 
France, England, and the United States, bringing the 
study of education down to the present time. 

It furnishes the literature of each subject and gives 
an extensive general bibliography of works for reference. 



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Milne's Plane Geometry 

Half Leather, i zmo, 242 pages. Price, $0.75 

Milne's Plane and Solid Geometry 

Half Leather, 1 2mo, 384 pages. Price, $1.25 
By William J. Milne, Ph.D., LL.D. 
President New York State Normal College, Albany, N. Y. 



The appearance of Milne's Geometry marks a new era 
in the science. It embodies novel and attractive methods 
of treatment which are based on sound pedagogical 
principles. It represents the first successful combination 
of the valuable features of inventional and concrete 
geometry with rigid, logical demonstration. 

The New Plan. — In these books the student is intro- 
duced to geometry through the employment of inventional 
steps, supplemented by demonstrations, in consecutive 
order, of the fundamental propositions of the science. He 
is trained to draw proper inferences from the study of 
accurately drawn figures and by logical deductive reason- 
ing to arrive at the right conclusion. 

Every theorem is introduced by questions designed to 
lead the student to discover the geometrical concept 
clearly and fully before a demonstration is attempted. 
The laboratory method is introduced at the beginning and 
is continued throughout the book. There has also been 
supplied a great abundance of undemonstrated theorems 
and of unsolved problems. This original work has been 
carefully graded and the knowledge obtained from the 
solution of each proposition will be found of direct use in 
the working out of subsequent ones. Under each general 
truth are tabulated in order of demonstration all the pro- 
positions and theorems which fortn it. 

The books contain a large number of diagrams and 
figures situated on the same page with the theorem and 
problem to which they belong. 



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An Advanced English Grammar 



FOR THE USE OF 



HIGH SCHOOL, ACADEMY AND COLLEGE CLASSES 



W. M. BASKERVILL 

Professor of the English Language and Literature in Vanderbilt University^ 
Nashville^ Tenn. 

AND 

J. W. SEWELL 

Of the Fogg High School, Nashville, Tenn. 

Cloth, 12mo, 349 pages ... 90 cents 



This new Grammar is designed for advanced students who desire 
to extend their studies in English beyond the course ordinarily pursued 
in Common or Grammar Schools. In this work, grammar is treated as 
a science based on facts and principles derived from the actual use of 
the language and not from technical rules and traditions. 

Its aim is to lead the pupil to deduce for himself grammatical rules 
from the best examples of construction and style to be found in English 
literature and to acquire skill in their use. For this purpose abundant 
and apposite quotations from standard authors are given to illustrate 
each grammatical relation and construction and to show the student that 
he is dealing with the facts of the language and not with the theories of 
the grammarians. 

While the book represents original and advanced methods it is at 
the same time conservative in treatment, and aims to preserve what is 
good in the older methods. 



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Practical Rhetoric 

A Rational and Comprehensive Text-Book for tlie use of 
High Schools and Colleges. By John Duncan 
QuACKENBOS, A.M., M.D., Emeritus Professor of 
Rhetoric in Columbia University. 



Cloth, i2mo, 477 pages. Price, ^i.oo 



' I ^HIS work differs materially from all other text-books 
of rhetoric both in plan and method of treatment. 
It first develops, in a perfectly natural manner, the laws 
and principles which underlie rhetorical art, and then 
shows their use and practical application in the different 
processes and kinds of composition. The book is clear, 
simple, and logical in its treatment, original in its depar- 
ture from technical rules and traditions, copiously illus- 
trated with examples, and calculated in every way to 
awaken interest and enthusiasm in the study. A large 
part of the book is devoted to instruction and practice in 
actual composition work in which the pupil is encouraged 
to follow and apply genuine laboratory methods. 

The lessons are so arranged that the whole course, 
including the outside constructive work, may be satisfac- 
torily completed in a single school year. 



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Halleck's Psychology and 
Psychic Culture 

By REUBEN POST HALLECK, M.A. (Yale) 
Cloth, 12mo, 368 pages. Illustrated .... Price, $1.25 



This new text-book in Psychology and Psychic Culture 
is suitable for use in High School, Academy and College 
classes, being simple and elementary enough for beginners 
and at the same time complete and comprehensive enough 
for advanced classes in the study. It is also well suited 
for private students and general readers, the subjects being 
treated in such an attractive manner and relieved by so 
many apt illustrations and examples as to fix the attention 
and deeply impress the mind. 

The work includes a full statement and clear exposition 
of the coordinate branches of the study — physiological and 
introspective psychology. The physical basis of Psychol- 
ogy is fully recognized. Special attention is given to the 
cultivation of the mental faculties, making the work 
practically useful for self-improvement. The treatment 
throughout is singularly clear and plain and in harmony 
with its aims and purpose. 

*' Halleck's Psycholog-y pleases me very much. It is short, clear, 
interesting, and full of common sense and originality of illustration. 
I can sincerely recommend it." 

WILLIAM JAMES, 
Professor of Psychology, Harvard University. 



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Harkness's New Latin Grammar 



A COMPLETE LATIN GRAMMAR 

Cloth-leather binding. i2mo, 464 pages . . . . $1.25 

A SHORT LATIN GRAMMAR 

Cloth-leather binding. i2ino, 254 pages .... .80 

By Albert Harkness, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor Emeritus in 
Brown University. 

These new text-books embody the results of life-long labors and 
represent the fruits of the latest and most authoritative scholarship in the 
field of Latin instruction, For more than thirty years the text-books of 
Dr. Harkness have been in continued and satisfactory use in the best 
classical schools of the country, and have always received the unqualified 
commendation of the most eminent teachers and professors. But new 
methods, new discoveries, and new needs require new and representative 
text-books. These books have accordingly been prepared to meet the 
demands of progressive teachers and the present requirements of schools 
and colleges in this department of classical study. 

The Complete Latin Grammar is designed at once as a text-book 
for the classroom and a book of reference for the student. It aims not 
only to present systematically for the benefit of the beginner the lead- 
ing facts and laws of the Latin language, but also to provide accurately 
for the needs of the advanced student. By brevity and conciseness in 
phraseology, and by compactness in the arrangement of forms and 
topics, qualities which contributed in the highest degree to the success 
of Professor Harkness's earlier works, the author has compressed within 
the limits of a convenient manual an amount of carefully selected gram- 
matical facts which would otherwise fill a much larger volume. 

The Short Latin Grammar is intended for the benefit of those who 
prefer to begin with a more elementary manual, and for those who do 
not contemplate a full collegiate course of study. In this work the con- 
venience and interest of the young student have been carefully consulted. 
It may be used with advantage in any school where, for special reasons, 
the Short Grammar is deemed desirable. 

Correspondence in regard to the examination and introduction of 
Harkness's Complete Latin Grammar, or Harkness's Short Latin 
Grammar, is cordially invited. 



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Eclectic English Classics 



Arnold's (Matthew) Sohrab and Rustum . 

Burke's Conciliation with the American Colonies 

Burns's Poems— Selections ... 

Byron's Poems — Selections 

Carlyle's Essay on Robert Burns 

Chaucer's Canterbury Tales— Prologue and Knighte's Tal 

Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner 

Cooper's Pilot 

Defoe's History of the Plague in London 

DeQuincey's Revolt of the Tartars 

Dryden's Palamon and Arcite . 

Emerson's American Scholar, Self Reliance, and Compensation 

Franklin's Autobiography . 

George Eliot's Silas Marner 

Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield . 

Gray's Poems— Selections . 

Irving's Sketch Book — Selections 

Tales of a Traveler . 
Macaulay's Second Essay on Chatham 

Essay on Milton 

Essay on Addison 

Life of Samuel Johnson 
Milton's L'Allegro, II Penseroso, Comus, and Lycidas 

Paradise Lost — Books L and IL 
Pope's Homer's Iliad, Books I., VI., XXII. and XXIV. 

Rape of the Lock, and Fssay on Man 
Scott's Ivanhoe 

Marmion . 

Lady of the Lake 

The Abbot 

Woodstock 
Shakespeare's Julius Cassar 

Twelfth Night . 

Merchant of Venice . 

Midsummer-Night's Dream 

As You Like It . 

Macbeth 

Hamlet 
Sir Roger de Coverley Papers 
Southey's Life of Nelson . 
Tennyson's Princess , 
Webster's Bunker Hill Orations 
Wordsworth's Poems — Selections 



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Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern History 

Barnes's Brief History of Ancient Peoples 
Cloth, i2mo. 330 pages. With maps and illustrations . $1.00 
Being- the same as the first half of Barnes's General History of the 
World. In this work the political history is condensed to the salient and 
essential facts, in order to give room for a clear outline of the literature, 
religion, architecture, character and habits of each nation. Though de- 
signed primarily for a text-book, it is well adapted for the general reader. 

Barnes's Brief History of Modern Peoples 
Cloth, i2mo. 314 pages. With maps and illustrations . $1.00 

Being the same as the last half of Barnes's General History of 

the World, and comprising the period from the fall of Rome to the 

present time. 

Thalheimer's Manual of Ancient History 

Cloth, 8vo. 376 pages. With maps and illustrations . $1.60 

A manual of ancient history from the earliest times to the fall of the 

Western Empire, with a full index in which pronunciations are indicated. 

The book is also issued in three parts, each part sufficiently full and 

comprehensive for the academic and university course : — 
Part I., Eastern Empires, 80 cts. Part II., History of Greece, 80 cts. 
Part III., History of Rome, 80 cts. 

Thalheimer's Mediaeval and Modern History 

Cloth, 8vo. 480 pages. 12 double-page maps . . . $1.60 
A sketch of fourteen centuries, conveying by a simple narration of 

events, an impression of the continuity of the civil history of Europe. 

Barnes's Brief History of Rome 

Cloth, i2mo. 316 pages. Illustrated . . . . $1.00 

With select readings from standard authors, on the plan of Brief 

History of Greece. It gives a very good idea of the history of that 

great empire, together with a graphic description of Roman customs. 

arts, literature, etc. 

Barnes's Brief History of Greece 

Cloth, i2mo. 201 pages. Illustrated . . . .75 cents 

This consists of two parts : first, the chapters on the political history 

and the civilization of Greece in Barnes's Brief History of Ancient Peoples, 

including numerous illustrations and ten colored maps ; and second, a 

number of appropriate selections from the works of famous historians. 



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